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SUPPLEMENTARY  EDUCATIONAL  MONOGRAPHS 

Published  in  conjunction  with 
THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW  and  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  JOURNAL 

Vol.  Ill  June,  1 92 1 

No.  3  Whole  No.  15 


The  Development  of  High-School  Curricula 

in  the  North  Central  States 

from  1860  to  1918 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UMIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 
LIBRARY, 

OS  ANGELES,  CAUR 


v/ 


The  Development  of  High-School 

Curricula  in  the  North  Central 

States  from  1860  to  1918 


By 
JOHN  ELBERT  STOUT 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 

49o5B 


Copyright  1921  By 
THEf  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


Published  June,  1921 


^  a  8 
^  g  « 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  trace  the  development  of  high- 
school  curricula  in  the  North  Central  states  from  1860  to  1900. 
An  introductory  chapter  presents  a  brief  account  of  the  early  high 
schools.  It  furnishes  a  background  for  a  treatment  of  the  develop- 
ment of  curricula  in  the  geographical  area  indicated  in  the  title. 

The  monograph  is  divided  into  three  Parts.  Parts  I  and  II  are 
devoted  to  the  period  1860-1900.  Part  III  covers  the  period  1900- 
1918.  Part  I  contains  a  treatment  of  subjects  and  their  organiza- 
tion into  curricula.  Part  II  is  devoted  to  the  subject  matter  of  the 
vai"ious  fields  and  subjects.  Part  III  deals  with  subjects  and 
subject  matter,  a  chapter  being  devoted  to  each. 

A  few  authorities  are  cited  but  tabulations  and  discussions  are 
for  the  most  part  based  upon  data  secured  from  original  sources. 
These  sources  are  chiefly  published  courses  of  study  and  textbooks. 
Some  of  the  material  was  made  available  for  use  by  the  libraries  of 
the  University  of  Chicago,  the  University  of  Illinois,  Oberlin  College, 
and  Cornell  College.  A  considerable  portion  of  it,  however,  was 
widely  scattered,  particularly  the  published  courses  of  study,  and 
had  to  be  collected  from  the  schools  throughout  the  area. 

In  selecting  curricula  for  purposes  of  display  and  tabulation, 
an  effort  was  made  to  secure  those  which  would  fairly  represent 
prevailing  practices.  Small  schools  have  somewhat  less  proportional 
representation  than  medium  size  and  large  ones  for  the  reason  that 
copies  of  curricula  used  in  the  small  school  have  in  many  cases  not 
been  preserved.  Textbooks  for  reference  have  been  selected  on 
the  basis  of  their  general  use  as  shown  by  lists  displayed  in  published 
courses  of  study. 

For  purposes  of  tabulation,  the  period  1860-1900  has  been 
divided  into  eight  units  of  five  years  each.  In  Part  III  two  units 
were  selected,  1906-1910  and  1911-1918.  This  has  been  done  to 
determine  as  accurately  as  possible  the  dates  at  which  significant 
changes  took  place. 

In  the  treatment  of  subjects,  organization  of  curricula  and 
subject  matter,  the  facts  are  presented  as  revealed  by  the  sources 
consulted.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  connected  accounts 
of  particular  schools.  Peculiarities  of  individual  schools  have  been 
noted  but  conclusions  deal  with  general  practices  and  tendencies. 

J.  E.  S. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    The  Early  High-School  Movement 1 

Establishment  of  the  English  Classical  School,  1821.  Influ- 
ence of  this  school.  Its  purpose.  Regulations.  Course  of  study. 
Changes  in  the  course  of  study.  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  High 
School.  Course  of  study.  Establishment  of  the  New  Haven,  Con- 
necticut, High  School.  Course  of  study.  Course  of  study,  Balti- 
more, Maryland,  High  School.  Establishment  of  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania,  High  School.  Course  of  study.  Comparison  of 
courses  of  study  of  the  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  and  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  High  Schools. 

PART  I.     DEVELOPMENT  IN  SUBJECTS  AND  IN  CURRICULA 
ORGANIZATION 

II.    Similarity  in  General  Plan  and  Lack  of  Uniformity  in  De- 
tails OF  Curricula 16 

Early  high  schools  in  the  North  Central  section.  The  two  aims 
of  high-school  instruction.  Influence  of  the  Boston  school.  Com- 
parison of  courses  of  study  of  Baltimore,  Maryland,  and  Columbus, 
Ohio.    Lack  of  uniformity.    Explanation  of  tables. 

III.  Representative  Courses  of  Study 20 

Details  of  courses  of  study.  Lack  of  uniformity  shown.  Com- 
parison of  courses  of  study  of  Madison,  Wisconsin,  and  Cincinnati, 
Ohio.  Of  Auburn,  Indiana,  and  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.  Of  James- 
town, Ohio  and  Appleton,  Wisconsin.  Further  comparison  of 
courses. 

IV.  Number  OF  Courses  Offered;  Titles  AND  Organization 46 

Table  I.  Courses  vary  in  length  and  number.  Curricula  or- 
ganization. The  two  aims  again.  Lack  of  definite  standards.  Lack 
of  commercial  and  industrial  influences.  Titles  lack  definite  mean- 
ing. Confusion  in  use  of  terms.  Few  titles  furnish  definite  informa- 
tion. Use  of  the  word  "English."  Of  other  titles.  Order  in  which 
subjects  appear  in  curricula.  Mathematics.  English.  Science. 
The  social  studies.  Foreign  language.  Commercial  subjects. 
Miscellaneous  subjects.  Units  of  time  in  organization.  Three-term 
year  prevalent.  Growth  of  the  semester  plan.  Practice  of  offering 
a  subject  not  less  than  half-year  preceded  adoption  of  semester 
plan. 

V.    Subjects  Included  in  Curricula 62 

Tables  II  to  IX  inclusive.  Number  of  schools  offering  each  sub- 
ject for  the  several  periods.  Wide  range  of  subjects  offered  in  a  few 
schools.  Fewer  subjects  than  indicated  in  English  due  to  lack  of 
uniformity  in  terminology.    Same  true  to  some  extent  in  the  social 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

studies.  Subjects  offered  not  included  at  present  in  high-school 
curricula.  Some  schools  offered  little  work  in  English.  Wide 
range  in  science.  Prevalence  of  short  courses.  Fewer  subjects  and 
longer  time  devoted  to  each  was  the  later  practice.  Social  studies 
received  less  attention  than  at  present  time.  Increased  attention 
to  the  field  toward  the  close.  Range  of  work  in  foreign  language 
changed  little.  Little  work  offered  in  commercial  subjects.  In- 
creased attention  in  a  few  schools  after  1890.  Miscellaneous  sub- 
jects relatively  numerous  in  the  earlier  years.  Rapid  decline  after 
1870.    Manual  training  offered  in  a  few  schools  after  1890. 

VI.     Constants  and  Variables 71 

Table  X.  Mathematics,  English  and  science  were  constants. 
Social  studies  a  constant  after  1870.  Increase  in  number  of  schools 
offering  foreign  language.  Algebra  and  geometry  constants.  Arith- 
metic next  in  importance.  Trigonometry  declines.  Analytics  and 
Calculus  disappear  after  1885.  Literature  is  a  constant  after  1885. 
Grammar  a  variable  and  declined  in  importance.  Status  of  composi- 
tion uncertain.  Some  increase  of  attention  given  to  it.  Rhetoric 
ranked  next  to  literature.  Little  change  evident.  Physics  prac- 
tically a  constant.  Physiology  ranked  second,  followed  by  botany. 
Physical  geography  and  chemistry  have  equal  rank.  Astronomy 
and  geology  decline  in  importance.  Status  of  European  history  not 
easily  determined.  Probably  a  constant  throughout.  United  States 
history  increases  in  importance.  Same  true  of  civics.  Political  econ- 
omy gains,  though  relatively  unimportant.  Latin  gains  and  is 
practically  a  constant  at  the  close.  Greek  unimportant  and  de- 
clines. German  remains  unchanged  while  French  declines.  Book- 
keeping only  commercial  subject  of  importance  until  1890. 

VII.    Variations  in  Time  Devoted  to  Fields  and  Subjects 80 

Tables  XI-XVIII  show  variations  in  time  devoted  to  fields. 
Table  XIX  show  time  in  years  devoted  to  each  field.  Tables  XX- 
XXVII  show  time  in  years  devoted  to  each  subject.  Lack  of  uni- 
formity in  time  devoted  to  fields.  Wide  range  shown.  Lack  of 
standardization.  Little  change  in  average  time  devoted  to  mathe- 
matics. Small  increase  in  time  devoted  to  arithrrtetic.  Consider- 
able increase  in  algebra.  Some  increase  in  geometry.  Increase  of 
one  year  in  English.  Little  change  in  grammar,  composition,  or 
rhetoric.  Time  devoted  to  literature  increased  nearly  one  year. 
Time  devoted  to  science  remained  practically  unchanged.  Increase 
in  time  devoted  to  physics.  Only  slight  changes  in  the  other 
sciences.  Time  devoted  to  the  social  subjects  increased  approxi- 
mately one  year.  Little  change  except  in  European  history. 
Uncertainty  concerning  time  devoted  to  foreign  language  owing  to 
lack  of  exact  data.  Probably  little  change  in  time  devoted  to  the 
field.  Increase  in  time  devoted  to  the  commercial  subjects  near  the 
close.  Required  subjects  and  electives.  Algebra  and  geometry 
required  subjects.    English  not  required  in  all  the  earlier  classical 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

courses.  Later  required  in  all  courses.  Literature  less  frequently 
required  than  other  English  subjects.  Physics  usually  required.  Of 
the  other  science  subjects,  botany,  physical  geography,  and  phy- 
siology more  frequently  required.  European  history  and  United 
States  history  more  frequently  required  than  other  social  studies. 
If  a  foreign  language  was  required,  it  was  invariably  Latin.  Ab- 
sence of  generally  accepted  criteria  for  determining  required  sub- 
jects and  electives.  Influence  of  college  entrance  requirements. 
Lack  of  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  required  subjects  and  electives. 

VIII.    Influence  of  Size  and  Location  of  Schools 109 

Large  and  small  schools.  The  latter  offered  a  wider  range  of 
subjects.  Neither  rural  nor  urban  conditions  seem  to  have  influ- 
enced curricula.  Comparison  of  city  and  small  town  school.  In- 
fluence of  locality.  Schools  in  different  states  compared.  Individ- 
ual differences  in  schools  pronounced.  Changes  in  curricula  of 
individual  schools.     Examples  of  changes. 

PART.    II.     CONDITIONS  AND   CHANGES   IN   SUBJECT-MATTER 

IX.     Introductory 117 

Importance  of  subject-matter.  Considered  from  two  stand- 
points. Fields  and  subjects  differ  widely.  Mathematics.  Little 
change  in  amount  and  character  of  subject-matter  in  mathematics. 
Decline  in  importance  of  higher  mathematics.  Changes  more 
pronounced  in  arithmetic  than  in  algebra  or  geometry. 

X.     English 123 

Important  changes  in  this  field.  Changes  in  college  entrance 
requirements.  Little  change  in  grammar.  Considerable  change  in 
rhetoric.  Two  stages  in  the  teaching  of  rhetoric.  Most  important 
change  in  literature.  Three  stages  in  the  teaching  of  literature. 
Wide  range  of  short  selections  marks  the  first  stage.  Second  stage 
characterized  by  emphasis  upon  biography  and  history  of  literature. 
Barren  character  of  this  work.  Third  stage  marked  by  emphasis 
upon  classics.  Entrance  requirements  show  growth  in  importance  of 
this  class  of  material.  Examples  of  classics  used.  Relative  impor- 
tance of  masterpieces.  Long  list  of  titles  of  selections  used  in  var- 
ious schools.  Two  emphases  employed  in  the  teaching  of  classics. 
Early  composition  work  informal.  Work  carried  on  in  connection 
with  general  school  exercises.  Relation  of  composition  to  grammar; 
to  rhetoric;  to  literature.  Emphasis  upon  grammatical  and  rhetor- 
ical forms. 

XL    The  Sciences 147 

Considerable  confusion  concerning  character  of  material  due  to 
persistence  of  old  textbooks.  Changes  in  character  of  subject- 
matter  due  to  different  aims.  Religious  aim.  Knowledge  aim.  Dis- 
ciplinary aim.     Subject-matter  of  natural  history.      Of  zoology. 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTEK  PAGE 

Aims  in  teaching  zoology.  Botany  a  premedical  study.  Later 
emphasis  upon  anatomical  structure.  An  occasional  reference  to  the 
religious  aspect  of  the  subject.  Emphasis  upon  plant  morphology. 
Slight  emphasis  at  the  close  upon  agricultural  and  horticultural 
aspects  of  the  subject.  Religious  aim  in  teaching  physiology. 
Emphasis  uf)on  anatomy.  Increasing  attention  to  hygiene.  Two 
aims  controlled  in  teaching  physics.  Knowledge  aim.  Disciplinary 
aim.  Earlier  books  emphasized  general  information.  Later  texts 
emphasized  formal  aspects  of  the  subject.  Influence  of  the  dis- 
ciplinary aim.  Growth  of  laboratory  work.  Changes  in  chemistry 
similar  to  those  in  physics.  Laboratory  work  began  earlier.  Earlier 
texts  emphasized  the  practical  aspect  of  the  subject.  Influence  of 
the  evolutionary  point  of  view.  Subject-matter  in  physical  geog- 
raphy practically  unchanged  until  near  the  close.  Emphasis  upon 
general  information.  Early  tests  were  compendiums.  Later  ones 
emphasized  the  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man. 

XII.    The  Social  Studies 174 

European  history  received  chief  attention.  Emphasis  upon 
ancient  history.  Political  history  emphasized.  Much  attention 
given  to  chronology.  Some  attention  to  social  aspect  of  history 
after  1880.  Movement  not  general.  Emphasis  upon  industrial  and 
commercial  aspects  of  the  subject  had  gained  little  momentum  even 
at  the  close.  Textbooks  in  United  States  history  characterized  by 
emphasis  upon  wars.  After  1870  the  texts  give  some  attention  to 
life  of  the  people.  Political  and  military  events  continue  to  pre- 
dominate. Civics  teaching  falls  into  two  periods.  The  first  is 
characterized  by  emphasis  upon  the  constitutional  aspect  of  the 
subject.  Texts  consist  largely  of  analyses  of  constitutions.  The 
second  period  is  marked  by  emphasis  upon  local  government.  Func- 
tions of  government  receive  more  attention.  Two  periods  in  the 
teaching  of  political  economy.  The  first  is  marked  by  stress  upon 
the  philosophical  aspect  of  the  subject.  Theoretical  principles 
emphasized.  Later  texts  lay  more  stress  upon  the  application  of 
principles.    Some  attention  given  to  economic  history. 

XIII.     Foreign  Language  and  Miscellaneous  Subjects 190 

Little  change  in  subject-matter  in  this  field.  Grammatical 
method  prevailed.  Little  change  in  first-year  Latin.  Practically 
no  change  in  other  years.  Modern  languages  have  a  history  very 
similar  to  that  of  Latin.  Emphasis  upon  grammar.  Commercial 
work  chiefly  bookkeeping.  Stenography  and  typewriting  intro- 
duced near  the  close.  Manual  training  received  some  attention 
near  the  close.  Drawing  received  considerable  attention.  Wood- 
work.    Little  work  in  iron. 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

PART  III.     RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS 

XIV.    Organization  of  Curricula  and  Range  of  Subjects 197 

Tendencies  at  close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Marked 
changes  since  1910.  Enlarged  scope  of  secondary  education.  The 
junior  high  school  and  junior  college.  Typical  junior  high-school 
curricula.  Curricula  organization.  Table  XXVIII.  Tendency 
shows  increased  attempt  to  meet  needs  of  various  pupil  groups. 
Curricula  titles.  Plans  of  organization.  Typical  four-year  cur- 
ricula. Tables  XXIX-XXX.  Relative  frequency  of  subjects  and 
fields  offered.  Table  XXXI.  Constants  and  variables.  Required 
subjects  and  electives.    Influence  of  size  and  location  of  schools. 

XV.    Changes  in  Subject-Matter 228 

Changes  in  subject-matter  since  1900.  General  character  of 
these  changes.  Changes  in  mathematics.  New  plan  of  organiza- 
tion. "Unified"  mathematics.  Changes  in  subject  and  organiza- 
tion of  English.  Tendency  to  eliminate  traditional  courses.  Intro- 
duction of  unified  courses.  Increase  in  use  of  current  literature. 
Growth  of  "general"  science  since  1900.  Lack  of  agreement  in 
character  of  subject-matter  and  organization  of  general  science 
texts.  Changes  in  subject-matter  of  the  various  sciences.  Less 
emphasis  on  the  old  type  of  scientific  training.  Important  changes 
in  the  social  studies.  Emphasis  being  placed  on  industrial  and 
commercial  material.  Recent  texts  emphasize  the  functional 
aspects  of  the  subject.  New  plan  of  organization  of  material  in  the 
field  of  social  studies.  Texts  similar  in  plan  to  unified  mathematics 
and  English  and  general  science  coming  into  use. 

XVI.    Summary 249 

Appendix 261 

Tables  A— J 262 

Bibliography 292 

Index * 317 


INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT 

The  English  Classical  School  was  established  in  Boston  in  1821.  . 
Later  it  was  called  the  English  High  School.  This  school  was  the 
first  of  the  type  of  schools  which  constitutes  the  chief  means  of 
secondary  education  in  this  country^  and  it  no  doubt  exercised 
considerable  influence  upon  the  high  schools  established  subse- 
quently in  Massachusetts  and  elsewhere.  It  is  therefore  thought 
desirable  to  set  forth  the  aim  which  dominated  this  school  and  to 
trace  in  some  detail  the  early  development  of  the  curriculum. 

It  should  not  be  understood  that  the  plan  of  the  Boston  school 
was  followed  in  detail.  The  fact  is,  it  was  not.^  But  this  school 
led  in  a  movement  which  resulted  in  public  secondary  education, 
and  its  aim  became  one  of  the  two  outstanding  aims  dominating 
the  high  schools  since  that  time.^ 

At  a  meeting  of  the  School  Committee  of  Boston  in  October, 
1820,  a  resolution  was  introduced  relating  to  the  establishment  of 
an  English  Classical  School.  The  resolution  was  referred  to  a 
subcommittee  which  reported  favorably  for  the  establishment  of 
such  a  school,  and  the  report  was  adopted  by  the  School  Committee. 
In  January,  1821,  a  town  meeting  was  held  at  which  the  plan  was 
approved  with  only  three  dissenting  votes.  The  report  of  the 
subcommittee  is  set  forth  in  E.  E.  Brown's  well-known  work. 

The  mode  of  education  now  adopted,  and  the  branches  of  knowledge  taught 
at  our  English  grammar  schools,  are  not  sufficiently  extensive  nor  otherwise 
calculated  to  bring  the  powers  of  the  mind  into  operation  to  qualify  youth  to 
fill  usefully  and  respectably  many  of  those  stations,  both  public  and  private,  in 
which  he  may  be  placed.  A  parent  who  wishes  to  give  a  child  an  education  that 
shall  fit  him  for  active  life,  and  shall  serve  as  a  foundation  for  eminence  in  his 
profession,  whether  Mercantile  or  Mechanical,  is  under  the  necessity  of  giving 
him  a  different  education  from  any  which  our  public  schools  can  now  furnish. 
Hence,  many  children  are  separated  from  their  parents  and  sent  to  private 

•  In  1915  there  were  11,674  public  and  2,248  private  secondary  schools.  (Report  United  State 
Commissioner  of  Education,  1916,  II,  447.) 

»  Cf.  pp.  20-42;  also  Appendix,  Tables  A-H. 

'  Cf.  pp.  6,  10,  13,  14;  also  Tables  I  and  XXVIII. 


2  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

academies  in  this  vicinity  to  acquire  that  instruction  which  cannot  be  obtained 
at  the  public  seminaries.  Thus,  many  parents  who  contribute  largely  to  the 
support  of  these  institutions  are  subjected  to  heavy  expense  for  the  same  object 
in  other  towns.^ 

The  committee,  for  these  and  many  other  weighty  considerations  that  might 
be  offered,  and  in  order  to  render  the  present  system  of  public  education  more 
nearly  perfect,  are  of  the  opinion  that  an  additional  school  is  required.  They 
therefore  recommend  the  founding  of  a  Seminary  which  shall  be  called  the  Eng- 
lish Classical  School,  and  submit  the  following  as  a  general  outline  of  a  plan  for 
its  organization  and  of  the  courses  of  studies  to  be  pursued.* 

In  the  report  of  the  School  Committee,  "Regulations  of  the 
School  Committee  of  the  City  of  Boston,"' is  found  the  following: 

This  school  is  situated  in  Derne  Street.  It  has  been  instituted,  at  the  publick 
expense,  with  the  express  design  of  furnishing  the  young  men  of  this  city,  who 
are  not  intended  for  a  collegiate  course  of  study  and  who  have  derived  the  usual 
advantages  of  the  other  publick  schools,  with  the  means  of  completing  a  good 
English  education,  to  fit  them  for  active  life,  or  qualify  them  for  eminence  in 
private  or  publick  stations.  fHere  are  enjoyed,  especially,  the  best  instructions 
in  the  elements  of  Mathematicks  and  Natural  Philosophy,  with  their  application 
to  the  Sciences  and  Arts,  in  Grammar,  Rhetorick,  and  Belles-Lettres,  in  Moral 
Philosophy  and  in  History,  Natural  and  Civil.  This  establishment  is  furnished 
with  a  very  valuable  mathematical  and  philosophical  apparatus  for  the  purposes 
of  experiment  and  illustration. 

"In  addition  to  the  common  Regulations  Sect.  2  Chap.  1  the  following  are 
required  to  be  observed  in  this  school: 

1.  No  boy  shall  be  admitted,  as  a  member  of  the  English  High  School,  under 
the  age  of  12. 

2.  Boys  shall  be  examined  for  admission  into  this  school  only  once  a  year, 
viz.,  on  the  Friday  and  Saturday  following  the  semiannual  visitation  and  exhibi- 
tion of  the  school  in  August. 

3.  Candidates  for  examination  shall  produce  from  the  masters  of  the  schools 
they  last  attended,  certificates  of  good  character  and  presumed  qualifications 
for  admission  into  this  school.  It  shall,  however,  be  the  duty  of  the  master  of  it, 
to  institute  a  personal  examination  of  them  in  Reading,  Writing,  English  Gram- 
mar, Geography  and  Arithmetick  as  far  as  Proportion,  including  a  general  view  of 
Vulgar  and  Decimal  Fractions,  in  all  of  which  they  must  be  found  well  versed, 
in  order  to  be  admitted.  The  lads,  who  produce  the  certificates  granted  them  for 
their  merit,  as  in  Sect.  2,  Chap.  2,  Reg.  16  shall  be  exempted  from  examinations 
accordingly.  (This  refers  to  the  "two  boys  most  distinguished  for  their  improve- 
ment and  good  behavior"  who  were  admitted  without  examination.) 

4.  The  school  shall  be  devided  into  three  classes;  and  such  sections  of  these 
shall  be  formed  as  the  good  of  the  school  shall  from  time  to  time  demand.  Each 
class  shall  have  their  appropriate  studies  assigned  them,  corresponding  to  the 

>  Brown,  E.  E.,  Tht  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools;  An  Account  of  the  Development  of  Suondary 
Education  in  the  United  States,  1902,  pp.  298-300. 
« Ibid.,  pp.  300-1. 
»  Report  of  1823,  pp.  23-26. 


THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  3 

intellectual  progress  of  the  institution;  and  to  every  class  and  section  of  the  same 
the  matter  shall  be  required  to  give  a  due  proportion  of  his  personal  attention. 

5.  Individuals  shall  be  advanced  in  these  classes  according  to  their  scholar- 
ship and  no  faster;  and  none  shall  be  permitted  to  remain  members  of  the  school 
longer  than  three  years  to  complete  their  course. 

6.  The  classes  or  sections  shall  be  required  to  pursue  their  respective  branches 
of  study  not  less  than  one  week,  without  mixture,  except  where  occasional  exer- 
cises, as  writing,  reading,  declamation,  composition,  &c,  may  be  advantageously 
introduced  as  a  relief  to  the  pupils. 

7.  Particular  reviews  of  each  class  or  section  shall  be  instituted,  once  a  week, 
and  general  reviews  once  a  quarter  by  the  several  instructors,  in  their  appropriate 
departments. 

8.  The  branches  of  learning  and  authors,  to  which  the  several  classes  shall, 
at  present,  be  required  to  attend,  are  as  follows:  3d  or  lowest  Class.  No.  1.  Intel- 
lectual and  Written  Arithmetick,  by  Colburn  and  Lacroix.  2.  Ancient  and  Modern 
Geography,  by  Worcester.  3.  General  History,  by  Tyler;  History  of  the  United 
States,  by  Grimshaw.  4.  Elements  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  by  Blair.  5.  Reading, 
Grammar  and  Declamation.  6.  Book-keeping  by  Single  and  Double  Entry. 
7.  Sacred  Geography. 

2d  Class.  No.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7  Continued,  and  No.  8  Algebra,  by  dictation 
.  .  .  and  Euler.  9.  Rhetorick  and  Composition  .  .  .  Blair's  Lecture  abridged. 
10.  Geometry,  by  Legendre.  11.  Natural  Philosophy.  12.  Natural  Theology, 
by  Poley. 

1st.  Class.  No.  5,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12  Continued,  and  No.  13,  Chronology. 
14.  Moral  Philosophy,  by  Poley,  15.  Forensicks.  16.  Criticisms  on  English 
Authors.  17.  Practical  Mathematicks,  Comprehending  Navigation,  Survey- 
ing, Mensuration,  Astronomical  Calculations,  &c,  together  with  the  Construction 
and  Use  of  Mathematical  Instruments.  20.  A  course  of  Experimental  Lectures 
on  the  various  branches  of  Natural  Philsophy.  21.  Evidences  of  Christianity, 
by  Poley. 

9.  For  every  accession  of  forty  pupils  to  the  whole  number  in  this  school 
an  additional  assistant  shall  be  allowed  the  master,  that  is,  there  shall  be  at  least 
one  instructor  for  every  forty  pupils. 

This  course  of  study  remained  unchanged,  with  the  following 
exceptions,  up  to  1852:  In  1829^  the  following  "studies  are  allowed 
if  the  masters  think  proper  to  introduce  them":  Smellie's  Philoso- 
phy of  History,  chemistry,  intellectual  philosophy,  linear  drawing, 
and  logic.  In  1836^  trigonometry,  French,  and  constitution  of  the 
United  States  were  added. 

In  1852  a  four-year  course  was  provided  instead  of  a  three,  with 
the  following  course  of  study: 

Class  3.  1.  Review  off  preparatory  Studies  using  the  text  books  authorized 
in  the  Grammar  and  Writing  Schools  of  the  City.  2.  Ancient  Geography. 
3.  Worcester's  General  History.  4.  Sherwin's  Algebra.  5.  French  Language. 
6.  Drawing. 

>  Report  of  1829,  p.  19. 
»  Report  of  1836,  p.  19. 


4  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Class  2.    1.  Sherwin's  Algebra,  continued.    2.  French  Language,  continued. 

3.  Drawing,  continued.  4.  Legendre's  Geometry.  5.  Bookkeeping.  6.  Blair's 
Rhetoric.  7.  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  8.  Trigonometry,  with  its 
application  to  Surveying,  Navigation,  Mensuration,  Astronomical  Calculations 
&c.    9.  Foley's  Evidences  of  Christianity — a  Monday-morning  lesson. 

Class  1.  Trigonometry,  with  its  applications  &c  continued.  2.  Foley's 
Evidences,    continued — a    Monday-morning    lesson.      3.  Drawing,    continued. 

4.  Astronomy.  5.  Natural  Fhilosophy.  6.  Moral  Philosophy.  7.  Political 
Ek:onomy.  8.  Natural  Theology.  9.  Cleveland's  Compendium  of  English 
Literature.  10.  French,  continued,  or  the  Spanish  language  may  be  commenced 
by  such  pupils,  as  in  the  judgment  of  the  master  have  acquired  a  competent 
knowledge  of  the  French. 

For  the  pupils  who  remain  at  the  school  the  fourth  year,  the  course  of  studies 
shall  be  as  follows:  1.  Astronomy.  2.  Intellectual  Philosophy.  3.  Omitted  in 
Report.  4.  Logic.  5.  Spanish.  6.  Geology.  7.  Mechanics,  Engineering  and  the 
higher  Mathematics  with  some  option. 

Sect.  9.  The  several  classes  shall  also  have  exercises  in  English  Composition 
and  Declamation.  The  instructors  shall  pay  particular  attention  to  the  pen- 
manship of  the  pupils,  and  give  constantly  such  instruction  in  Spelling,  Reading 
and  English  Grammar  as  they  may  deem  to  be  necessary  to  make  the  pupils 
perfect  in  these  fundamental  branches  of  a  good  education. ^ 

This  course  of  study  as  given  above  remained  without  important 
change  and  "The  Regulations  Relating  to  the  English  High  School" 
were  practically  unmodified  up  to  1860.  As  pointed  out  above,  a 
fourth  year  was  added  to  the  course  and  boys  were  permitted  to 
remain  in  the  school  four  years  instead  of  three. 

The  regulations  and  course  of  study  of  the  Latin  Grammar 
School^  indicate  a  very  different  purpose  for  this  school.  Its 
avowed  object  was  to  prepare  for  the  University^  and  the  course  of 
study*  consisted  (except  for  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and 
trigonometry)  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  subjects  closely  allied.  Boys 
were  admitted  at  nine  years  of  age,*  and  it  required  five  years® 
to  complete  the  course. 

In  the  Report  of  1827,  are  given  the  regulations  relating  to  the 
high  school  for  girls  and  the  course  of  study.  The  course  was  one 
year  in  length.  No  girl  was  admitted  before  the  age  of  fourteen 
nor  after  sixteen.  The  purpose  of  the  school  is  not  stated.  The 
course  of  study  was  as  follows : 

L  Reading,  Pierpont's  First  Class  Book.  2.  Spelling,  Walker's  Dictionary, 
abridged;  Boston  Stereotype  Edition.     3.  English  Grammar,  Murray's  Abridg- 

»  Report  of  1852,  pp.  39-40. 
»  Report  of  1823,  pp.  26-30. 
» Ibid.,  p.  26. 
« Ibid.,  p.  28. 
» Ibid.,  p.  27. 
•  Ibid.,  p.  27. 


THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  5 

ment;  Collin's  Stereotype  Edition.  4.  Rhetoric,  Blair's  Lectures,  abridged; 
Greene's  Edition.  5.  Composition.  6.  Modern  Geography,  by  Worcester. 
7.  Ancient  Geography.  8.  The  drawing  of  Maps.  9.  Mental  Arithmetic,  Col- 
burn's  First  Lessons.  10.  Written  Arithmetic,  Colburn's  Sequel.  11.  Practical 
Geometry.  12.  Natural  Philosophy,  Blake's  Edition  of  the  Conversations. 
13.  Bookkeeping,  by  Single  Entry.  14.  History  of  the  United  States,  by  Good- 
rich.' 

No  mention  of  this  school  is  made  in  subsequent  reports. 

The  early  reports  of  the  School  Committee  of  Lowell,  Massa- 
chusetts, contain  very  meager  information  concerning  the  high 
school.    In  the  Report  of  1839  is  found  the  following: 

One  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  favor  of  placing  it  (the  high  school)  at 
once  on  the  most  permanent  and  respectable  basis,  is  that  it  may  draw  to  its  halls, 
the  children  of  all  classes:  that  it  may  be  the  place  where  rich  and  the  poor  may 
meet  together;  where  the  wall  of  partition  which  now  seems  raised  between  them, 
may  be  removed;  where  the  kindlier  feelings  between  the  children  of  these  classes 
may  be  begotten ;  where  the  indigent  may  be  excited  to  emulate  the  cleanliness, 
decorum  and  mental  improvement  of  those  in  better  circumstances;  and  where 
the  children  of  our  wealthier  citizens  will  have  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  and 
sympathizing,  more  than  they  now  do,  in  the  wants  and  privations  of  their  fellows 
of  the  same  age;  where  both  insensibly  forget  the  distinction  which  difference 
of  circumstances  would  otherwise  have  drawn  between  them  and  where  all  feel  the 
conscious  dignity  of  receiving  their  instruction  as  a  right,  to  which  as  the  children 
of  citizens  they  are  entitled  and  which  cannot  be  denied  them.^ 

In  the  Report  of  1840  the  following  statement  is  made: 

The  influence  of  this  school  is  felt  as  an  incentive  to  exertion  through  all  the 
public  schools  in  the  city.  Its  object  is  to  place  within  reach  of  the  poorest  citizen 
such  means  of  preparing  his  children  for  college,  or  for  giving  instruction,  or  for 
any  branch  of  active  business,  as  the  richest  shall  be  glad  to  avail  themselves  of, 
for  their  own  children.  This  object  has  been  thus  far  realized.  More  needs  not 
to  be  said  to  commend  this  institution  to  the  especial  sympathy  and  favor  of  the 
people.' 

Again  in  the  Report  of  1843  we  find: 

Of  our  High  school  little  need  be  said.  It  has  so  far  become  an  object  of 
pride  and  affection  with  our  citizens,  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  constantly  under 
their  eye;  and  there  is  therefore  the  less  necessity  that  the  Committee  should  call 
the  public  attention  to  it. 

It  has  entirely  superseded  all  private  schools  in  our  City,  and  all  necessity 
for  them.  No  class  of  our  citizens  is  excluded  from  its  benefits,  and  none  cer- 
tainly can  have  any  inducement  to  deprive  themselves  of  its  advantages,  by 
sending  their  children  to  seek  higher,  or  more  thorough  instruction  elsewhere.* 

»  Report  of  1827,  pp.  22-23. 
»  Report  of  1839,  pp.  4-5. 
•  Report  of  1840,  pp.  6-7, 
«  Report  of  1843,  p.  5. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


It  is  probable  that  the  course  of  study  was  not  very  well  worked 
out  from  the  following  statement  found  in  the  Report  of  1851 : 

There  are  two  modes  in  which  a  High  School  may  be  organized  and  con- 
ducted. One  is,  that  of  an  exact  and  prescribed  course  of  study,  limited  to  a  term 
of  three,  four  or  five  years,  (generally  three)  with  annual  admission,  and  a  corre- 
sponding course  of  study  for  each  year.  The  other  is  no  prescribed  course;  but 
in  its  place  an  authorized  list  of  studies,  left  to  the  option  of  the  pupil,  with  entire 
freedom  of  admission  or  absence  each  term. 

The  former  is  now  adopted  by  every  other  important  High  School  in  Massa- 
chusetts, including  that  of  Lawrence;  Lowell  is  left  almost  in  the  exclusive  advoc- 
acy of  the  latter.  Is  our  practise  founded  in  wisdom,  sanctioned  by  experience, 
or  enforced  by  an  inevitable  necga^ityPi 

It  is  evident  thatX'bwell  soon  fell  into  line  in  adopting  the  plan 
found  in  other  high'  schools.  In  the  Report  of  1852  courses  of  study 
for  both  thejilale  and  female  departments  are  given  in  detail.  The 
English ^^otirse  for  the  male  department  was  as  follows: 

ENGLISH  COURSE"  FOR  MALE  DEPARTMENT 


First  Term 
English    Grammar 

Parsing 
Physiology 

Arithmetic 

Natural  Philosophy 
Useful  Arts 

Algebra 

Astronomy 

Physical  Geography 
Geometry 


FIRST  YEAR 
Second  Term 
and         English  Grammar  and 
Parsing 
Physiology  and  General 

History 
Arithmetic 

SECOND  YEAR 

Chemistry 

Useful  Arts,   Natural 

History 
Algebra 

THIRD  YEAR 
Astronomy 

Political  Economy 
Trigonometry 


Third  Term 
Natural  Philosophy 

General  History 

Algebra 

Chemistry 
Natural  History 

Geometry 

Intellectual  Philos- 
ophy 
Rhetoric 
Surveying  or  Review 


The  English  course  offered  in  the  female  department  differed  but 
very  little  from  that  of  the  male  department.  The  classical  course 
was  the  same  in  both  departments  and  was  as  follows : 

CLASSICAL  COURSE  IN  BOTH  DEPARTMENTS 


First  Term 
Latin  Lessons 

'Report  of  1851,  p.  SO. 
»  Report  of  1852,  p.  9. 


FIRST  YEAR 
Second  Term 
Latin  Reader 


Third  Term 

Latin  Reader 


THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  7 

SECOND  YEAR 

Caesar  Caesar  Caesar 

THIRD  YEAR 

Virgil  and  Greek  Reader         Virgil  and  Greek  Reader         Virgil  and  Greek 

Reader 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Cicero  and  Greek  Cicero  and  Greek  Review 

Reader  Reader 

Whether  students  in  the  classical  department  carried  studies  in 
addition  to  those  listed  is  not  made  clear. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  purpose  of  the  Lowell  High  School  was  to 
fit  for  college  as  well  as  for  the  practical  duties  of  life.  In  this 
respect  it  differed  from  that  of  the  English  Classical  School  of 
Boston. 

The  Report  of  1857^  contains  revised  courses  of  study.  The 
word  "Department"  has  now  been  dropped  and  "Courses  of  Study" 
substituted.  An  English  course  of  three  years  and  a  classical 
course  of  four  years  are  maintained.  A  study  of  these  courses  makes 
it  clear  that  the  purpose  remains  the  same,  viz.,  the  English  course 
to  fit  for  the  practical  duties  of  life,  and  the  classical  course  to  fit 
for  higher  institutions. 

The  number  of  years  required  to  complete  the  course  of  study 
offered  by  the  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  High  School  is  not  given 
in  the  earliest  report  in  which  the  high  school  is  mentioned — that  of 
1852.  In  this  report  it  is  stated  that  three  departments  were 
maintained — the  department  of  common  English  branches,  one  of 
higher  English  and  mathematical  branches,  and  a  third  course 
called  the  classical  department.  The  following  subjects  were 
taught,  the  number  following  each  indicating  the  number  of  pupils 
pursuing  the  subject  i^ 

Greek,  4  Natural  Philosophy,  48 

French,  31  Bookkeeping,  33 

Latin,  98  Algebra,  90 

Arithmetic,  60  Mensuration,  15 

Grammar,  58  Surveying 

Geography,  64  Botany,  16 

History  of  United  States,  67  Watts,  6 

Parker's  Exercises,  50  Geometry,  20 

Physiology,  10  Meteorology,  36 

All  are  required  to  attend  regularly  to  Orthography,  Reading  and  Composi- 
tion, and  all  in  the  male  department  to  declamation.    Singing  is  a  daily  exercise. 

» Report  of  1857,  p:  37. 
2  Report  of  1852,  p.  10. 


8  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

In  the  Report  of  1855^  the  list  of  subjects  taught  is  given,  and  it 

differs  from  that  of   1852  in  the  following  particulars:  Parker's 

Exercises,  mensuration,  and  surveying  were  dropped;  ancient  and 

modern  history,  chemistry,  rhetoric,  astronomy,  geology,  natural 

theology,  and  United  States  constitution  were  added.    In  1858  two 

departments  were  maintained — English  and  classical.    No  informa- 

y      I  tion  is  given  concerning  the  requirements  of  either  course.     The 

\    /  statement  is  made  that  the  English  course  requires  three  years  to 

Yvcomplete  it,  and  provides  that  certain  studies  may  be  pursued  dur- 

/     mg  the  fourth  year.     No  ancient  languages  were  offered  in  this 

/     course. 

A  high  school  was  established  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in 
May,  1859.^  No  information  is  given  in  this  report,  nor  in  the 
reports  of  1860,  1861,  or  1862  concerning  the  course  of  study.  In 
the  Report  of  1863,  the  following  subjects  are  listed:' 

Arithmetic  Greek 

Bookkeeping  Rhetoric 

Algebra  Logic 

Geometry  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy 

Trigonometry  History 

Mensuration  Political  Philosophy 

Surveying  Constitution  of  United  States 

Navigation  Physical  Geography 

English  Language  and  Litera-      Natural  Philosophy 

ture  Chemistry 

Reading  and  Declamation  Astronomy 

Spelling  and  Defining  Philosophy 

Composition  Botany 

French  Geology 
German 
Latin 

The  early  reports  of  Baltimore,  Maryland,  contain  no  reference 
to  a  high  school,  the  first  definite  information  concerning  a  course 
of  study  being  found  in  the  Report  of  1851.  In  this  Report  the 
following  high  school  course  of  study  is  given  :^ 

FIRST  YEAR  SECOND  YEAR 

Ancient  and  Modern  History  Ancient  and  Modem  History 

Grammar  Composition 

Geography  Ancient  Geography 

»  Report  of  1855,  p.  37. 

'  Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1859,  p.  31. 

»  Report  of  1863,  p.  18. 

*  Report  of  1851,  p.  20. 


THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT 


Languages 


Arithmetic 

Geometry 

Astronomy  and  Globes 

Bookkeeping 

Mensuration 

Natural  Philosophy 

Physiology 

Ancient  and  Modern  Languages 

Writing  ^ 

Linear  and  Perspective  Drawing 

Mechanical  Drawing 

Music 

FOURTH  YEAR 
Composition 
Declamation 
Rhetoric 
Logic 
History 
Bookkeeping 
Analytic  Geometry 
Engineering    with    the    use    of 

instruments  of  surveying  and 

leveling 
Dialling 

Practical  Astronomy 
Descriptive  Geometry 
Navigation 
Calculus 
Conic  Sections 
Natural  Philosophy 
Chemistry 
Writing 
Drawing 
Mineralogy 
Physiology 

Constitution  of]Maryland 
Political  Economy 
Ancient  and  Modern  Languages 

As  early  as  1855  there  was  a  high  school  established  for  girls  and 
the  course  of  study  is  given  in  the  report  of  that  year.^  The  course 
of  study  of  the  Central  High  School  in  this  city  is  given  in  the 
Report  of  1860.  The  course  was  as  follows,  the  number  follow- 
ing each  subject  indicating  the  number  of  recitations  per  week:^ 


Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Natural  Philosophy 

Physiology 

Ancient  &  Modern 

Writing 

Drawing 

Music 


THIRD  YEAR 

Ancient  and  Modern  History 

Composition 

Elocution 

Rhetoric 

Trigonometry 

Surveying 

Bookkeeping 

Chemistry  with  lectures 

Natural  Philosophy 

Astronomy 

Physiology 

Moral  Philosophy 

Ancient  and  Modern  Languages 

Writing 


»  Report  of  1855,  p.  63. 
«  Report  of  1860,  p.  164. 


10 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


FIRST  YEAR 

Latin,  3 

United  States  History,  1 
Greek,  3 
German,  3 
French,  2 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Cal- 
culus, 3 
Astronomy,  1 
Chemistry,  3 
Physiology,  1 
Rhetoric  and  Elocution,  2 
Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy,  3 

THIRD  YEAR 

Greek,  3 
Latin,  3 
German,  3 
French,  3 
History,  2 
Surveying,  3 
Astronomy,  2 
Natural  Philosophy,  4 
Bookkeeping,  1 
Composition  and  Declama- 
tion, 2 


SECOND  YEAR 

United  States  History,  1 
Bookkeeping,  3 
Reviews,  3 
German,  3 
French,  2 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Calcu- 
lus, 3 
Astronomy,  1 
Chemistry,  3 
Physiology,  1 
Rhetoric  and  Elocution,  2 
Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy,  3 

FOURTH  YEAR 

German,  4 
French,  4 
History,  2 
Surveying,  3 
Astronomy,  2 
Bookkeeping,  3 
Vocal  Music,  1 
Natural  Philosophy,  4 
Composition    and    Declama- 
tion, 2 
Mensuration,  3 
Geometry,  4 


Physiology,  4 
-The  Philadelphia  High  School  was  established  in  1837.^    In  the 
report  of  the  following  year  is  contained  the  following : 

Since  that  period  (referring  to  the  last  Report)  a  building  admirably  adapted 
to  its  intended  uses  has  been  completed  on  the  east  of  Penn  Square,  near  the  mint  of 
the  United  States,  professors  in  various  branches  of  classical,  English  Belle- 
Lettes,  mathematical,  astronomical  and  physical  science  appointed,  the  school 
opened,  and  an  adequate  number  of  pupils  after  due  and  strict  examination  have 
been  admitted.  Lectures  are  delivered  on  natural  history,  comparative  anatomy, 
botany,  chemistry,  mineralogy  and  geology.  The  French,  German,  and  Spanish 
languages  will  be  added  as  classes  are  formed. 

The  vast  advantages  of  such  an  establishment  to  the  pupils  of  this  school, 
to  the  best  interests  of  geographical,  nautical,  and  astronomical  science,  and  to 
the  enviable  distinction  of  our  noble  commonwealth  are  too  obvious  to  need 
comment  here.^ 

In  the  report  of  the  acting  high-school  principal,  1840,  the 
following  information  is  given  concerning  the  course  of  study : 

Three  courses  were  contemplated  as  follows:  Principal  Course,  Classical 
Course,  and  English  Course.    The  Principal  Course  offered  the  following  range 

» Annual  Report  of  the  Controllers  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia,  1837,  pp.  5-6. 
s  Report  of  1838,  pp.  8-9. 


THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  11 

of  subjects:  English  Belles-Lettres  and  History;  French;  Morals;  Mathematics; 
Natural  Philosophy  and  Geography;  Natural  History;  Drawing  and  Writing. 

Pupils  in  the  Classical  Course  substituted  classics  for  French  and  those  in 
the  English  Course  substituted  English  and  Mathematics  for  French.' 

An  analysis  of  the  rather  broad  designations  used  above  reveals 
the  following: 

English  Belles-Lettres  and  History  consisted  of  the  following:  European 
and  United  States  History;  Rhetoric  Etymological  exercises;  Analysis  of  sen- 
tences with  reference  to  grammar  and  rhetoric,  and  of  words  with  reference  to 
etymological  composition,  declamation,  etc. 

The  Department  of  Moral  and  Mental  Science  consisted  of  oral  lessons  on 
morals;  and  the  Constitution  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  Department  of  Mathematics  included  Algebra;  Arithmetic;  Geometry; 
Plane  Trignonometry;  Geography;  Natural  Philosophy;  and  Mechanics. 

The  Department  of  Natural  History  included  the  following:  General  prin- 
ciples of  special  Physics;  Bony,  Muscular,  Vascular  and  Nervous  systems,  etc.; 
Evidences  of  design;  Application  to  the  Ordinary  cases  of  bodily  injuries.^ 

The  subjects  offered  and  the  time  devoted  to  each^  are  shown 
in  the  Report  of  1845: 

Moral,  Mental  and  Political  Science. — Political  Economy  1,  Mental  Philos- 
ophy 1,  Moral  Philosophy  1,  Constitution  of  Pennsylvania  Hi  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  3^,  Belles-Lettres  and  History,  Guizot's  History  of  Civilization 
J^,  Schlagel's  History  of  Literature  1,  Whateley's  Logic  J^,  Whateley's  Rhetoric  J^, 
Robertson's  Charles  V  H,  Goldsmith's  History  of  Rome  3^,  Composition  and 
Rhetorical  Analysis  3^,  White's  Elements  of  General  History  14,  History  of  Greece 
3^,  History  of  England  3^,  History  of  the  United  States  3^,  Oswald's  Etymology  2. 

Ancient  and  Modern  Languages. — Greek  2,  Latin  4,  Spanish  1,  and  apparently 
1  year  of  French. 

Languages  and  Extra  English. — Chemistry  1,  Natural  Philosophy  1,  His- 
torical Narrations  3^,  Etymology  2,  Mathematics  and  Astronomy,  Algebra, 
Geometry,  Trigonometry,  Analytical  Geometry,  Calculus,  Navigation,  Mensura- 
tion, Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Natural  History,  Anatomy  and  Physiology  (lec- 
tures) 3,  Zoology,  Hygiene  (lectures  3^,  Domestic  Medicine  and  Surgery  (lectures) 
3^,  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  (lectures)  13^. 

Drawing,  Writing,  and  Bookkeeping. — Bookkeeping  was  offered  two  and  a 
half  years.  The  other  work  consisted  of  what  was  called  Drawing  and  Plain  and 
Ornamental  Writing.    The  drawing  was  from  solid  objects  and  patterns.* 

This  course  remained  without  material  changes  up  to  1860  as  is 
shown  by  the  high-school  course  on  pages  142-43  of  the  report  of 
that  year. 

»  Report  of  the  Acting  High-School  Principal,  1840,  pp.  18-26. 

»/6«(i.,  pp.  31-34. 

'  The  figures  indicate  years  or  fractions  of  a  year. 

*  Report  of  1845,  pp.  79-80. 


12  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

An  analysis  of  the  course  of  the  Boston  school,  1823,  shows  the 
following  range  of  subjects  in  the  various  fields : 
Mathematics:  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Geometry,  and  "Practical  Mathematicks." 

(Since  this  included  surveying,  navigation,  etc.,  trigonometry  was  no  doubt 

taught.) 
English:  Reading,   Grammar,    Declamation,   Rhetoric,   Composition,   Criticism 

of  English  Authors. 
Science:  Natural  Philosophy,  A  course  of  Experimental  Lectures  on  the  various 

branches  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Elements  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Ancient  and 

Modern  Geography. 
Social  Studies:  General  History,  United  States  History. 
Commercial  Subjects:  Bookkeeping. 
Miscellaneous:  Sacred  Geography,  Blair's  Lectures,  abridged.  Natural  Theology, 

Chronology,  Moral  Philosophy,  Forensicks,  Evidences  of  Christianity. 

The  course  of  study  for  1852  which  remained  without  important 
change  to  1860,  gives  evidence  of  the  same  aim  as  that  of  1823.  A 
fourth  year  was  made  optional.  A  somewhat  wider  range  of  sub- 
jects was  offered  and  a  few  subjects  discontinued.  Those  added  are 
indicated  below  and  those  in  parentheses  have  been  discontinued. 

A  review  of  preparatory  studies  is  required : 

Mathematics:  Mechanics,    Engineering    and    "higher    mathematics    with    some 

option."     (Arithmetic.)' 
English:  (Criticism  of  Authors.)    Compending  English  Literature.    (Grammar.)' 
Science:  Astronomy,  Geology,  (Modern  Geography.)' 
Social  studies:  Constitution  of  United  States.    (United  States  History.)' 
Commercial  subjects:  No  change. 
Foreign  language:  French  or  Spanish. 
Miscellaneous:  Drawing,    Political    Economy,    Intellectual    Philosophy,    Logic 

(Sacred  Geography),  (Chronology),  (Forensicks). 

The  aim  of  this  school  remained  unchanged  as  shown  by  the 
foregoing  analysis.  The  absence  of  ancient  language  and  the 
emphasis  upon  the  so-called  English  subjects  is  conclusive  proof 
that  no  attempt  was  made  to  prepare  for  higher  institutions.  Bos- 
ton maintained  another  type  of  secondary  school,  the  Latin  Gram- 
mar SchooP  for  this  purpose.^  Its  curriculum*  was  almost  exclu- 
sively classical,  no  attempt  being  made  to  perform  the  function 
of  the  other  type  of  school. 

An  analysis  of  the  English  courses  of  study  in  other  high  schools 
will  reveal  the  same  general  facts  as  those  revealed  by  an  analysis 

'  Included  in  the  preparatory  studies. 
'  Report  of  1823,  pp.  26-30. 
'  Ibid.,  p.  26. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  28. 


THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT 


13 


of  the  English  Classical  School.    There  was  lack  of  uniformity  with 
regard  to  range  of  subjects — some  offered  three  and  others  four 
years  of  work — but  the  aim,  that  of  fitting  for  active  life,  was  the  , 
same.  | 

A  comparison  of  the  course  of  study  of  Springfield,  Massachu- 
setts,^ 1852  with  that  of  Baltimore,  Maryland,''  1851  shows  clearly 
the  wider  range  of  work  offered  by  the  latter  school. 


SPRINGFIELD 

Mathematics: 
Algebra 
Arithmetic 
Geometry 
Mensuration 
Surveying 


English : 

Orthography 
Reading 
Composition 
Grammar 
Parker's  Exercises 

Science: 

Geography 

Physiology 

Natural  Philosophy 
Botany 

Meteorology 

Social  Studies: 

United  States  History 


Commercial  Subjects: 
Bookkeeping 


BALTIMORE 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Mensuration 

Trigonometry 

Surveying 

Analytic  Geometry 

Engineering 

Descriptive  Geometry 

Navigation 

Calculus 

Conic  Sections 


Grammar 

Composition 

Elocution 

Rhetoric 

Declamation 


Geography 

Astronomy 

Natural  Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Physiology 

Mineralogy 

Ancient  and  Modern  History 

History 

Political  Economy 

Constitution  of  Maryland 


Bookkeeping 


"  Report  of  1852,  p.  10. 
»  Report  of  1851,  p.  20. 


14  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Miscellaneous: 

Watts'  Ancient  Geography 

Drawing 

Linear  and  Perspective  Drawing 
Mechanical  Drawing 
Moral  Philosophy 
Logic 
Dialling 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Baltimore  school  offered  a  much  wider 
range  of  subjects  particularly  in  mathematics,  in  the  social  studies, 
and  in  the  miscellaneous  subjects.  The  Lowell  school^  offered  a 
range  of  subjects  similar  to  that  of  Springfield,  while  the  course  in 
the  Philadelphia  schooP  was  similar  to  that  of  Baltimore. 

Other  high  schools  undertook  to  perform  the  functions  of  both 
types  of  Boston  schools,  that  of  preparing  for  higher  institutions  and 
also  for  the  practical  duties  of  life.  The  twofold  aim  of  the  Lowell 
high  school  is  made  clear  in  the  Reports  of  1840*  and  1843^  and  also 
in  the  courses  of  study  for  1852^  and  1857.'' 

The  schools  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,^  New  Haven,  Connect- 
icut,^ Baltimore,  Maryland,^"  and  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,^^ 
carried  out  both  educational  aims  in  a  single  type  of  school. 

In  summary,  the  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn : 

1.  The  aims  of  these  high  schools  (Boston  excepted)  were  to 
fit  for  higher  institutions  and  also  to  prepare  for  the  active  duties  of 
life.  These  two  aims  are  revealed  both  in  the  stated  purposes  of  the 
schools  and  in  their  curricula. 

2.  The  curricula  constituted  a  wide  range  of  subjects  and 
included  several  subjects  now  found  only  in  college  curricula.^^ 
Examples  of  these  are  intellectual  philosophy,  moral  philosophy, 
theology,  evidences  of  Christianity,  logic,  calculus,  analytics,  sur- 
veying, navigation,  and  engineering. 

1  Probably  intellectual  or  moral  philosophy. 
»  Report  of  1852,  p.  9. 
'  Ibid. 

«  Report  of  1840,  pp.  6-7. 
6  Report  of  1843,  p.  S. 
»  Report  of  1849,  p.  9. 
'  Report  of  1847,  p.  10. 

«  Report  of  1852,  p.  10.,  and  Report  of  1853,  p.  37. 
»  Report  of  1859,  p.  31. 
"Report  of  1851,  p.  20. 

"  Report  of  1837,  pp.  8-9,  and  Report  of  1840,  pp.  18-26. 

"  Some  high  schools  in  the  North  Central  states  oflfered  these  subjects  as  is  shown  by  reference  to 
Appendix,  Table  A. 


THE  EARLY  HIGH-SCHOOL  MOVEMENT  15 

3.  While  these  schools  were  all  influenced  by  the  same  control- 
ling aims,  there  was  lack  of  uniformity  in  length  of  course, 
subjects  offered,  and  in  the  organization  of  the  curricula.  These 
were,  however,  only  minor  differences,  and  the  broad  lines  along 
which  high-school  education  would  develop  were  determined  by 
these  early  schools. 


PART  I 
DEVELOPMENT  IN  SUBJECTS  AND  IN  CURRICULA  ORGANIZATION 

CHAPTER  II 

SIMILARITY  IN  GENERAL  PLAN  AND  LACK  OF  UNI- 
FORMITY IN  DETAILS  OF  CURRICULA 

The  public  secondary-school  movement  extended  westward,  and 
schools  of  this  type  were  established  prior  to  1860.  Dexter  places 
the  number  in  the  North  Central  States^  at  45  in  1860,  and  the 
whole  number  at  108.^  Cleveland,  Ohio,  established  a  high  school 
in  1846,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1847,  and  Toledo,  Ohio,  in  1849.' 
A  movement  to  establish  a  high  school  was  inaugurated  in  St.  Louis, 
Missouri,  as  early  as  1843,  but  the  school  was  not  authorized  until 
1853.*  The  need  of  such  a  school  was  urged  in  Chicago,  Illinois,  in 
1846,  but  it  Was  not  established  until  1856.*  Racine,  Wisconsin, 
established  a  high  school  in  1852,^  Dubuque,  Iowa,  prior  to  1858,' 
and  Columbus,  Indiana,  in  1859.*  Burlington,  Iowa,  did  not 
authorize  a  high  school  until  1863,  but  high-school  subjects  were 
taught  as  early  as  1853.'  In  connection  with  the  union-school 
movement  in  Michigan,  high  schools  were  established  at  Adrian, 
Ann  Arbor,  Coldwater,  Grand  Rapids,  Jonesville,  and  Ypsilanti  as 
early  as  1857.'" 

It  is  evident  that  the  high-school  movement  was  well  under  way 
by  1860.  It  is  also  clear,  as  shown  by  the  courses  of  study,  that  the 
aim  of  the  English  Classical  School  (Boston)  was  recognized  by  all 
[these  schools,  and  the  twofold  aim  of  the  Lowell  school  was  general. ^^ 
To  what  extent  the  western  schools  were  directly  influenced  by  the 
eastern  is  not  clear  although  there  is  some  evidence  of  such  influ- 

1  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  Ohio, 
South  Dakota,  and  Wisconsin. 

s  Dexter,  E.  G.,  A  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States,  1904,  p.  173. 
» Ibid.,  p.m. 

•  Annual  Report  St.  Louis  Schools,  1867,  pp.  108-09. 

•  Annual  School  Report,  1867,  pp.  50-51. 

•  Columbian  History  Racine  Public  Schools,  p.  9. 
'  Annual  Scltool  Report,  1876,  p.  65. 

•  Education  in  Indiana,  p.  272. 

»  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1902,  p.  60. 

>»  Report  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1855-56-57,  pp.  440-41,  449,  465,  476. 
"  C£.  Appendix,  Table  A  and  Table  II. 

16 


SIMILARITY  IN  PLAN  OF  CURRICULA 


17 


ence.^  Similar  social  and  educational  needs  and  ideals  in  the  two 
sections  would  account  for  similarity  of  educational  aims  and 
organizations,  and  this  is  clearly  revealed  both  by  the  stated  pur- 
poses of  the  schools  and  by  their  courses  of  study.  A  comparative 
study  of  Table  A  and  the  courses  of  study  set  forth  in  chapter  i 
will  reveal  the  points  of  similarity  between  the  curricula  of  the 
eastern  and  western  schools.  This  comparison  also  shows  a  lack 
of  uniformity  that  would  not  be  expected  if  the  western  schools 
had  adopted,  without  modification,  the  courses  of  study  of  the 
eastern  schools. 

An  analysis  of  two  courses  of  study^  reveals  the  similarity  in 
general  plan  and  also  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  details.^ 

BALTIMORE,   MARYLAND,   1851*  COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  1851* 

mathematics" 


Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Trigonometry 

Mensuration 

Mensuration 

Surveying 

Surveying 

Navigation 

Navigation 

Engineering 

Engineering 

(Analytics)  (Calculus) 

(Higher  Algebra) 

(Conic  Sections) 

(Higher  Geometry) 

(Dialling) 

(Descriptive  Geometry) 

ENGLISH 

Grammar 

Grammar 

Composition 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Rhetoric 

Declamations 

Declamations 

(Elocution) 

(Higher  Grammar) 

(Word  Analysis) 

(Synthetical  Analysis) 

(Reading) 

(Rhetorical  Reading) 

(History  of  Literature) 

(Elements  of  Criticism) 

(Study  of  Poetry) 

FOREIGN  1 

LANGUAGES 

Ancient  and  (Modern) 

Latin 

Languages 

Greek 

'  Columbian  History  of  Racine  Public  Schools,  1893,  p.  9. 
'  History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  1915,  III,  174. 
'  Each  course  four  years  in  length. 

*  Annual  School  Report,  1851,  p.  20. 
'  Annual  School  Report,  1851,  p.  ii. 

•  Subjects  in  parentheses  not  offered  in  the  other  school. 


18  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Physiology  Physiology 

Natural  Philosophy  Natural  Philosophy 

Astronomy  Astronomy 

Chemistry  Chemistry 

(Mineralogy)  (Physical  Geography) 

(Geography)  (Botany) 

(Geology) 

SOCIAL  STUDIES 

(Ancient)  and  Modern  History  Modern  History 

Political  Economy  Political  Economy 

Constitution  of  Maryland  Constitution  of  Ohio 

(History)  (United  States  History) 

(Chronology) 
(Philosophy  of  History) 
(Laws  of  Nations) 
(History  of  Civilization) 
(Constitution  of  United 
States) 

COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS 

Bookkeeping  Elements  of  Bookkeeping 

Double  Entry  Bookkeep- 
ing 
(Business  Forms) 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS 

Moral  Philosophy  Moral  Science 

Drawing  Drawing 

Music  Music 

(Linear  and  Perspective  (Evidences  of  Christian- 
Drawing)  ity) 

(Mechanical  Drawing)  (Logic) 

As  further  illustration  of  lack  of  uniformity,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
offered  a  three-year  course  in  1852  with  a  more  limited  range  of 
subjects  than  offered  by  either  Baltimore,  Maryland,  or  Columbus, 
Ohio.^  No  foreign  language  was  offered  which  indicates  that  the 
school  did  not  attempt  to  prepare  for  higher  institutions,  and 
mathematics  was  not  taught  beyond  trigonometry.  A  four-year 
course  was  offered  by  Dubuque,  Iowa,  in  1856  with  no  foreign 
language.^  Two  years  later  it  was  reduced  to  three  years,  and 
Latin,  Greek,  German,  and  French  were  provided,  all  of  which  were 
optional  except  Latin. ^ 

»  Annual  School  Report,  1852,  p.  23. 

»  AuRNER,  C.  R.,  History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  1915,  III,  281-82. 

•  Ibid.,  pp.  282-84. 


SIMILARITY  IN  PLAN  OF  CURRICULA  19 

The  representative  courses  of  study  given  in  full  and  the  various 
tables  will  show  in  detail  the  marked  lack  of  uniformity  and  also  the 
characteristics  common  to  high-school  curricula  for  the  period 
included  in  this  study.  For  purposes  of  convenience  and  clearness 
in  analyses  and  interpretations,  the  entire  period  of  forty  years  is 
divided  into  periods  of  five  years  each. 

Tables  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  and  J,  in  the  Appendix,  show 
the  number  of  courses  and  names  of  towns  and  cities  for  each 
period,  the  length  of  the  courses  offered,  the  subjects  offered,  and 
length  of  time  devoted  to  each  subject  and  field.  Bibliography  of 
material  used  is  given  under  separate  title  with  the  general  bibli- 
ography at  the  close. 

Table  I  shows  the  number  of  courses  offered  by  each  school  for 
the  several  periods  and  indicates  the  various  descriptive  titles  used. 

Tables  II-IX  show  the  number  of  schools  for  each  period  offering 
the  subjects,  and  Table  X  indicates  in  percentages  the  number  of 
schools  offering  each  subject. 

Tables  XI-XVIII  indicate  the  differences  in  total  time  devoted 
to  the  fields  by  the  several  schools  in  each  period.  Table  XIX 
shows  the  maxima,  minima,  modes,  and  averages  in  time  devoted 
to  each  field  for  each  period,  and  Tables  XX-XXVII  indicate  the 
same  for  the  various  subjects. 

The  tables  will  be  found  on  the  following  pages:  Table  I,  46- 
50;  Tables  II-IX,  62-68;  Table  X,  71-74;  Tables  XI-XVIII, 
80-90;  Table  XIX,  90-91 ;  Tables  XX-XXVII,  92-99.  Interpreta- 
tions follow  the  tables  in  each  case. 


CHAPTER  III 

REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 

The  courses  set  out  in  the  following  pages  were  selected  as 
typical  for  the  several  periods.  In  most  cases  they  are  reproduc- 
tions of  the  printed  forms  found  in  school  reports  cited  in  the  foot- 
notes. In  some  instances  where  parallel  courses  are  offered,  all  are 
not  given  in  detail.^  Analyses,  comments,  and  interpretations 
will  be  found  in  succeeding  chapters. 

ANN  ARBOR,  MICHIGAN,  18592 

FIRST  YEAR 

Davies'  Elementary  Algebra 
Green's  English  Analysis 
Davies'  University  Arithmetic 
Willson's  United  States  History 
Lambert's  Physiology 

SECOND  YEAR 

Wells'  Natural  Philosophy 
Quackenbough's  Rhetoric  and  Exer- 
cises 
Willson's  General  History 
Davies'  Legendre's  Geometry 
Warren's  Physical  Geography 
Trigonometry  and  Surveying 

THIRD  YEAR 

Davies'  Higher  Algebra 
Wayland's   Intellectual  Philosophy 

and  Moral  Science 
Wells's  Chemistry 
Kane's  Elements  of  Criticism 
Gray's  Botany 
Bookkeeping   (optional)   any  year  in  the  Course.     Reading  and  Spelling 
required  daily  during  the  whole  Course.     Declamation  and  Composition  semi- 
monthly.   Two  years  of  French  and  one  year  of  German  offered. 

The  instruction  in  the  Classical  Department  is  confined  to  the  Latin  and 
Greek  classics,  and  such  other  studies  as  are  requisite  to  prepare  young  men  for 
the  University. 

In  addition  to  Latin  and  Greek  the  following  subjects  are  offered  in  the 
Classical  Department: 

English  Analysis  Modern  Geography 

University  Arithmetic  History  of  Rome 

Higher  Algebra  Ancient  Geography 

»  Cf.  pp.  20,  28,  30,  31,  32,  35,  40,  41. 

*  Report  Superintendent  Public  Instruction,  Michigan,  1860,  pp.  244-45. 

20 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


21 


First  Term 
Higher  Arithmetic 
United  States  History 
English  Analysis 


Higher  Algebra 
Physical  Geography 
Physiology 
Analysis  of  Words 

Geometry 
Natural  Philosophy 
Rhetoric 
Ancient  History 

Mental  Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN, 

FIRST  YEAR 
Second  Term 
Higher  Arithmetic 
Elementary  Algebra 
English  Analysis  and 
Parsing 

SECOND  YEAR 

Higher  Algebra 
Physical  Geography 
Physiology 
English  Literature 

THIRD  YEAR 

Geometry 
Natural  Philosophy 
Rhetoric 
Ancient  History 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Mental  Philosophy 
Chemistry 
Moral  Science 


18631 


Third  Term 

Higher  Arithmetic 
Elementary  Algebra 
Botany  and  Vegetable 
Physiology 

Higher  Algebra 
Botany 
Bookkeeping 
English  Literature 

Geometry 

Rhetoric 

Geology 


Butler's  Analogy 

Logic 

Political  Economy 


Exercises  in  Declamation  and  Composition  weekly  throughout  the  Course. 
Latin  may  be  substituted  for  other  courses  during  the  four  years  and  Greek  during 
the  last  year  year  by  those  preparing  for  college. 


jects. 


CINCINNATI,  OHIO,  1862^ 
Five  recitations  per  week  unless  otherwise  indicated  by  figures  after  sub- 

FIRST  YEAR 
First  Session  Second  Session 

Algebra  Algebra 

German  or  French,  4  German  or  French,  4 

English  Classics  and  Rhetoric,  3      English  Classics  and  Rhetoric,  3 
Higher  Arithmetic,  2  Higher  Arithmetic,  2 


SECOND  YEAR 

Latin 

Latin 

Geometry 

Geometry 

German  or 

French, 4 

German  or  French,  4 

Ancient  Hi 

story,  4 

Medieval  History,  4 

English  Classics  and 

Composi-      English  Classics  and  Composi- 

tion, 1 

tion,  1 

THIRD  YEAR 

Algebra 

Trigonometry  or  Greek 

Greek 

Latin 

Latin 

Natural  Philosophy  or  Greek,  4 

^Annual  School  Report,  1863,  pp.  22-23. 

'  Thirty-third  Annual  Report  Common  Schools  of  Cincinnati,  1862,  pp.  70-71. 


22 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


German  or  French,  4 
English  Classics  and  Composi- 
tion, 1 


German  or  French,  4 
Modern  History,  4 
English  Classics  or  Composi- 
tion, 1 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Latin  Latin 

Chemistry  or  Greek  Chemistry  or  Greek 

Natural  Philosophy  or  Greek,  4      Astronomy 

Review  of  Algebra  and  Geome-      Constitution  of  United  States,  1 
try,  2 

Surveying  (for  boys),  3 
Instead  of  Latin  in  the  second  year,  those  making  such  choice  may  take  a 
course  of  Commercial  Forms  and  Bookkeeping,  five  lessons  per  week.    Beginning 
with  the  third  year  original  addresses  and  essays  will  be  required  once  in  three 
weeks  to  the  end  of  the  course.    Vocal  Music  throughout  the  course. 

LEAVENWORTH,  KANSAS,  1867i 
High  School  Course  of  Study 


First  Term 
Higher  Arithmetic 
English  Analysis 
Anatomy 


freshman  year 

Second  Term 
Higher  Arithmetic 
Outlines  of  History 
Anatomy 
Physical  Geography 


Latin,  German,  French  and  Spanish  are  optional. 


Algebra 

Natural  Philosophy 

Political  Economy 


sophomore  year 
Algebra 

Natural  Philosophy 
Meteorology 


Latin,  German,  French  and  Spanish  are  optional. 

JUNIOR  YEAR 

Geometry  Geometry 

Chemistry  Chemistry 

Rhetoric  English  Literature 


Latin,  German,  French  and  Spanish  are  optional. 


Astronomy 

Intellectual  Philosophy 
Trigonometry 


SENIOR  YEAR 

Moral  Philosophy 
Mensuration    and    Sur- 
veying 
Logic 


Third  Term 

Outlines  of  History 

Botany 

Physical  Geography 


Algebra 

Botany 

Constitution    and 
Science  of  Govern- 
ment. 


Chemistry 

Trigonometry 

Rhetoric 

English  Literature 

Reviews 


Bookkeeping 
Intellectual  Philos- 
ophy 
Moral  Philosophy 
Geology 
Reviews 


>  Report  of  SupmnUndeiU  «/  Schools,  1867,  pp.  43-44. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


23 


Latin,  German,  French,  and  Spanish  are  optional.  Composition  and  Decla- 
mation weekly  throughout  the  entire  course.  Physical  exercises  daily.  Reading 
and  writing  twice  a  week. 

JACKSONVILLE,  ILLINOIS,  1869^ 

English  and  Classical  Course 

first  year 


First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Arithmetic 

The  same,  except  Greek 

English  Language 

Grammar 

is  added 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Caesar 

Natural  Philosophy 

Greek 

Latin 

SECOND  YEAR 

Ancient  History 

Ancient  History 

Ancient  History 

Intellectual  Philos- 

Geometry 

Geometry 

ophy 

Bookkeeping 

Virgil 

Geometry 

Physiology 

Bookkeeping 

Botany 

Caesar 

Physiology 

Science  of  Govern- 

Greek 

Greek 

THIRD  YEAR 

ment 
Virgil 
Greek 

Rhetoric 

Rhetoric 

Intellectual  Physiol- 

Astronomy 

Astronomy 

ogy 

Chemistry 

Chemistry 

Moral  Philosophy 

Geology 

Geology 

Botany 

Cicero's  De  Senectute 

Greek 

Zoology 

Anabasis 

Cicero's  De  Senectute 

Cicero 
Greek 

Reading,  spelling,  declamation,  and  composition 

continued  throughout  the 

entire  course. 

Normal  Course 
FIRST  year 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Arithmetic 

Geography 

Grammar 

Methods  of  Instruction 

Economics 

Spelling 

Inventive  Drawing 

School  Organization 

Penmanship 

Physiology 

Mechanical  Drawing 

SECOND  YEAR 

Physical  Geography 

School  Discipline 

Algebra 

Mental  Philosophy 

Mental  Arithmetic 

Natural  History 

Astronomy 

Object  Lessons 

Physiology 

Science  of  Govern- 

Music 

Reading 

ment       h^:,^ 

School  Registration 

>  Report  of  Supefintc:ident  of  Schools  to  Board  of  Education,  1869,  p.  50. 


24 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


First  Term 
History  or  Latin 
Algebra 

Higher  Arithmetic  or 
Bookkeeping 

Latin  or  German 

Geometry 

Physiology 

Latin  or  German 

Astronomy 

Rhetoric 


WATERLOO,  IOWA,  1870i 

FIRST  YEAR 

Second  Term 

History  or  Latin 
Algebra 

Higher  Arithmetic  or 
Bookkeeping 

SECOND  YEAR 

Latin  or  German 

Geometry 

Physiology 

THIRD  YEAR 

Latin  or  German 

German 

Mental  Philosophy 

Rhetoric 


Third  Term 
History  or  Latin 
Algebra 

Higher  Arithmetic  or 
Bookkeeping 

Latin  or  German 
Trigonometry 
Natural  Philosophy 

Latin  or  German 

German 

Moral  Philosophy 

Logic 


Penmanship,  Declamation,  and  composition  throughout  the  course. 


CINCINNATI,  OHIO 

GRADE  D 
First  Session 
Latin 

College  Latin 
German 
Algebra 

Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hy- 
giene, 2 
History,  4 
Composition,  1 
Elocution,  1 
Drawing,  1 


GRADE  C 


Latin 

College  Latin 

Greek 

French 

German 

Algebra,  4 

History,  4 

Composition,  1 

Elocution,  1 

Freehand  Drawing,  1 


,  18722 

Second  Session 
Latin 

College  Latin 
German 
Algebra 
Anatomy,    Physiology 

and  Hygiene,  2 
History,  4 
Composition,  i 
Elocution,  1 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 

Latin 

College  Latin 

Greek 

French 

German 

English  Grammar,  4 

Composition,  1 

Elocution,  1 

Freehand  Drawing,  1 


Latin 
College  Latin 


Latin,  4. 
College  Latin 


1  Rules  and  Regulations,  1870,  p.  19. 

»  Annual  School  Report,  1872-73,  pp.  291-94.    Figures  after  subjects  indicate  number  of  recitations 
per  week.    Five  recitations  per  week  unless  otherwise  indicated. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


25 


Greek 

French,  4 

German,  4 

Geometry 

English  Literature,  3 

Natural  Philosophy,  4 

Elocution,  1 

Drawing,  1 


Greek 

French,  4 

German,  4 

Geometry  and  Plane  and  Spheri- 

ical  Trigonometry 
Natural  Philosophy,  4 
Botany,  3 

English  Literature,  3 
Composition,  1 
Elocution,  1 
Drawing,  1 


GRADE  A 

First  Session 

Latin,  3 

College  Latin 

Greek 

French,  3 

Astronomy,  completed,  4 

Chemistry,  4 

Natural  History,  1 

Mental  Philosophy,  1 

Constitution  of  United  States,  1 

Bookkeeping,  2 

English  Literature,  3 

Composition,  1 

Drawing,  1 
Pupils  in  the  Grades  A,  B,  and  C  may,  under  the  direction  of  the  principal, 
select  from  the  studies  of  their  respective  grades  an  amount  of  work  equal  to 
fifteen  recitations  per  week  exclusive  of  Composition,  Reading,  and  Declamation. 
In  the  latter  branch  all  pupils  shall  have  one  lesson  every  two  weeks. 


Second  Session 
Latin,  3 
College  Latin 
Greek 
French,  3 
Plane  Surveying,  3 
Chemistry,  4 
Mental  Philosophy,  1 
Geology,  3 
Natural  History,  1 
English  Literature,  3 
Composition,  1 
Drawing,  1 


First  Term 

Grammar 

Algebra 

Physical  Geography 

Latin 

Natural  History 
Geometry 
General  History 
Latin 

Philosophy 
Higher  Arithmetic 
Rhetoric 
Latin 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  1872i 

FIRST  YEAR 
Second  Term 

The  same  with  Physiol- 
ogy added 


SECOND  YEAR 

The  same  with  Botany 
added 


THIRD  YEAR 
Philosophy 
Higher  Arithmetic 
History  of  England 
Latin 


Third  Term 
Composition 
Algebra 
Physiology 
Latin 

The  same  with  Natural 
History  added. 


Civil  Government 
Sentential  Analysis 
History  of  England 
Latin 


1  Annual  School  Report,  1872,  p.  32. 


26 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Greek  and  German  will  be  optional  studies,  and  any  student  taking  either  of 
these  languages  will  be  excused  from  one  of  the  English  studies.  Compositions, 
Declamations,  Music,  Drawing,  and  Reading  throughout  the  course. 


First  Term 

Algebra 

Physical  Geography 

Latin 


Geometry 
Natural  History 
Latin 

General  History 
Greek  (optional) 


Trigonometry 
Mechanics 

Latin,  French,  or  Ger- 
man 
English  Literature 
Greek 


Mental  Science 
Chemistry 

Latin,  French,  or  Ger- 
man 


CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS,  1872i 

FIRST  YEAR 

Second  Term 
Algebra 

Physical  Geography 
Latin 


SECOND  YEAR 

Geometry 

Natural  History  and 

Botany 
Latin 

General  History 
Greek  (optional) 

THIRD  YEAR 

Astronomy 
Physics 

Latin,  French,  or  Ger- 
man 
English  Literature 
Greek 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Mental  Sciences 
Bookkeeping 
Latin,  French,  or  Ger- 
man 


Third  Term 
Algebra 
Physical  Geography 

and  Physiology 
Latin 

Same  as  second 


Astronomy 

Physics  and  Mechan- 
ics 

Latin,  French,  or  Ger- 
man 

English  Literature 

Greek 

Mental  Sciences 
Bookkeeping 
Latin,  French,  or  Ger- 
man 


Civil  Government  Geology  Political  Economy 

Greek  Political  Economy  Greek 

Composition,  drawing,  and  reading  throughout  the  courses.  Those  in  pre- 
paration for  college  who  desire  it,  can  omit  the  English  branches,  except  the 
requisite  mathematics,  and  complete  the  course  in  three  years. 


COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  1878^ 

FIRST  YEAR 

Algebra,  English,  Latin  or  German. 

SECOND  YEAR 
First  Term  Second  Term 

Geometry  Geometry 

Ancient  History  or  Ancient  History  or 

Greek  Greek 

Latin  or  German  Latin  or  German 

•  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1872,  p.  220. 
'  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1878. 


Third  Term 
Geometry 

Physiology  or  Greek 
Latin  or  German 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


27 


Chemistry 
Rhetoric  or  Greek 
Latin  or  German 

Physics 

English  Literature 

Latin  or  German 


THIRD  YEAR 
Chemistry 
Rhetoric  or  Greek 
Latin  or  German 

SENIOR  YEAR 

Physics 

English  Literature 

Latin  or  German 


Trigonometry 
Rhetoric  or  Greek 
Latin  or  German 

Arithmetic  (review) 
English  Grammar  (Re- 
view) 
Astronomy 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES 

Senior  Class — Weekly  lectures  in  Political  Economy. 

Junior  Class — Weekly  lessons  in  Civil  Government  (7  months). 

Junior  Class — Weekly  lessons  in  Botany  (6  months). 

Second  Class — Weekly  lectures  in  Physics. 

All  Classes — Music  twice  a  week,  and  Drawing  twice  a  week. 

All  Classes — Rhetorical  Exercises  once  each  week. 


OSKALOOSA,  IOWA,  1876' 


SUB-JUNIOR  YEAR 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Physiology 

Physiology 

Natural  Philosophy 

English  Grammar 

English  Grammar 

English  Composition 

Latin — Beginner's  Book 

Latin — Beginner's  Book 
and  Reader 

JUNIOR  YEAR 

Latin  Reader 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Natural  Philosophy 

Physical  Geography 

Physical  Geography 

Outlines  of  History 

Outlines  of  History 

Outlines  or  History 

Latin  Reader 

Caesar 

SENIOR  YEAR 

Caesar 

Geometry 

Review  Algebra 

Review  Arithmetic 

Zoology 

Botany 

Botany 

Rhetoric 

Rhetoric 

Constitution  of  United 

Caesar 

Virgil 

States 
Virgil 

Spelling  during  entire  course.    Literary  exercises  monthly. 


SPRINGFIELD,  ILLINOIS,  1880« 
English  Course 


First  Term 
Algebra 

General  History 
Physiology 
Lessons  in  English 
Composition 


FIRST  YEAR 
Second  Term 


Same 


Third  Term 

Same 


•  Rules  and  Rigulations,  Courses  of  Study,  1876,  p.  17. 

»  Annual  Report  Superintendent  Public  Schools,  1880,  pp.  72-73. 


28 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Algebra 
Bookkeeping 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion 
Rhetoric 

Geometry 
Political  Economy 
Natural  Philosophy 
English  Literature 


SECOND  YEAR 
Geometry 

Physical  Geography 
Botany 
Rhetoric 

THIRD  YEAR 

Trigonometry 
Natural  History 
Natural  Philosophy 
English  Literature 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Mathematics  (reviewed) 

Chemistry 

English  (reviewed) 


Same 


Same 


Mathematics   (re- 
viewed) 
Science  (reviewed) 
English  (reviewed) 


Geology 
Astronomy 
Chemistry 
English 

Declamation  and  Composition  throughout  the  course. 

Classical  Course 
FIRST  year:  Substitute  Latin  or  German  for  Physiology. 
second  year:  Substitute  Latin  and  Greek  for  Bookkeeping,  United  States 
Constitution  and  Science. 

THIRD  year:  Substitute  Virgil  or  German  and  Greek  for  Political  Economy 
and  Science. 

fourth  year:  Substitute: 

First  Term:  Livy  or  German,  Ancient  Geography  for  Science. 
Second  Term:  Horace  or  German,  and  Homer  for  Science. 
Third  Term:  Same. 


AUBURN,  INDIANA,  1882i 

GRADE  ONE 

First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Spelling 

Grammar 

Grammar 

Writing 

History 

Geography 

Arithmetic 

Reading 

Reading 

Grammar 

Spelling  and  Writing, 

Spelling  and  Writing, 

History 

continued 

GRADE  TWO 

continued 

Arithmetic 

Physiology 

Algebra 

Grammar 

Algebra 

Physical  Geography 

Physiology 

Bookkeeping 

GRADE  THREE 

Latin 

Algebra 

Algebra 

General  History 

Physical  Geography 

General  History 

Geometry 

Latin 

Latin 

GRADE  FOUR 

Latin 

Geometry 

Chemistry 

Chemistry 

Philosophy 

Philosophy 

Civil    Government 

Caesar 

Caesar 

Virgil 

» Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  1882-83,  pp.  9-10. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


29 


ST.  LOUIS  MISSOURI,  1881» 

FIRST  YEAR 

Latin,  Arithmetic,  Physiology  or  German,  Rhetoricals  3,  Drawing  2. 

SECOND  YEAR 

Algebra,  Natural  Philosophy,  Latin,  German  or  Greek,  or  History  of  Art 
or  Mechanical  Drawing,  Rhetoricals  3,  Drawing  2. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Greek  or  Bookkeeping  or  Mechanical  Drawing;  Latin  or  German  or  French ; 
General  History;  Chemistry  2;  Rhetoricals  3;  Geometry  2. 

FOURTH  YEAR 

History  of  English  Literature,  Shakespeare  and  Constitution  of  United 
States;  Latin  or  French  or  German ;  Zoology  and  Geology  or  Greek  or  Laboratory 
Chemistry  or  Mental  Philosophy  or  Trigonometry;  Rhetoricals  2. 

The  boys  in  the  Senior  class  are  required  to  take  2  of  the  6  studies  under  4. 
Music  throughout  the  course. 

MILWAUKEE,  WISCONSIN,  1884* 


English-Science  Course 


First  Term 

Algebra 

Grammar  and  Composi- 
tion 
Etymology 

Geometry 
General  History 
Biology 

Physics 

English  History 
English  Literature 


FIRST  year 

Second  Term 


Same 


second  year 


Same 


THIRD  YEAR 

Physics 

English  Literature 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion 


Third  Term 
Algebra 
Arithmetic 
Physiology 


Trigonometry 
General  History 
Rhetoric 

Physics 
Physiology 
Political  Economy 


Geology 
Mental  Science 
American  Classics 
German  or  French  elective 


FOURTH  YEAR 

Chemistry  Chemistry 

Astronomy  Mental  Science 

English  Classics  English  Classics 

Theme  writing  throughout  the  last  three  years. 
for  English  History  or  Political  Science  in  the  third  year,  or  for  Mental  Science 
and  Astronomy  in  the  fourth  year. 

German-English  Course 

FIRST  year 

Substitute  German  for  Etymology,  Latin,  and  Physiology. 


>  Annual  Report  President  of  Board  of  Education,  pp.  293-96. 
»  Annual  Report  School  Board,  1884,  p.  54. 


30 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


SECOND  YEAR 

Substitute  German  for  General  History. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Substitute  German  tor  Ejnglish  History,  United  States  Constitution,  and 
Political  Economy. 

MILWAUKEE,  WISCONSIN,  1884 


Fiist  Term 

Chemistry 
English  Hist<xy 
German 

Civil  and  Literary  His- 
tny 


German-En(h.ish  Course 
fourth  year 

Second  Term 

Chemistry 

Civil  and  Literary  His- 
tory 

United  States  Constitu- 
tk>n 

German 


ThiidTenn 
Geology 

Political  Economy 
German 

Civil  and  Literary 
History 


General  History  elective  for  mathematics  in  the  second  year. 


Latik-En(h.ish  Course 


first  year 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Elnglish  Compositioa 

English  Grammar 

Physiol<^y 

Latin  Grammar 

Latin  Lessons 

second  TEAR 

T.atin    Grammar    Les- 
sons 

Geometry 

Same 

Trigonometry 

Biok^y 

Rhetoric 

Caesar 

THIRD  YEAR 

Cicero 

Physics 

Same 

Physics 

English  Literature 

Physiology 

Ciceno 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Virgil 

English  Hist(My 

Civil  Government 

Roman  History 

Elnglish  Classics 

Elnglish  Classics 

Two  elective  studies 

Virgil 

Eclogs 

German  or  French  elective  for  English  Literature, 

Physiology,  and  English 

Classics  of  the  third  and  fourth  years  for  those  desiring  to  prepare  for  Ct^kge. 

SANDUSKY,  OHIO.  1889> 

Regular  Course 

FIRST  YEAR 

FaHTenn 

Iftlnta-  Tenii 

Spring  Tenn 

Latia  or  German 

Latin  or  German 

Latin  or  German 

Phj-siology 

Civil  Government 

Physical  GeografAy 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Algebra 

*A» 


I  Rtptrt  B*tri  tj  gfafrtiw.  1889.  p^  WKl. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


31 


Arithmetic,  1 
Bookkeeping,  1 
Drawing,  1 

Latin  or  German 
Geometry 
Physics 
Arithmetic,  1 
Drawing,  1 


Latin  or  German 
Rhetoric 
Geology 
Drawing,  1 


Latin  w  German 
Englbh  Literatm:* 
Roman  History  or 
Bookkeeping 


Arithmetic,  1 
Bookkeeping,  1 
Drawing,  1 

SECOND  YEAR 

Latin  or  German 
Geometry 
Physics,  4  weeks 
Chemistry,  8 
Arithmetic,  1 
Drawing,  1 

THIRD  YEAR 

Latin  or  German 
Astronomy 
Rhetoric,  4  weeks 
English  History,  8 
DraT»Tng,  1 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Latin  or  German 
English  Literature  or 

English  Grammar 
Greek  History  or  Natu- 
ral Philosophy 
Drawng,  1 
Elocution,  Composition,  and  Music  throughout  the 
per  week  except  where  otherwise  stated. 

English  Course 

FIRST  year:  same  as  General  Course,  except  English  substituted  for  Latin 
or  German. 

SECOND  year:  American  History  substituted  {or  Latin  or  German,  or  Gen- 
eral History  substituted. 

THIRD  year:  History  or  Bookkeeping,  Commercial  Law,  and  Reviews  sub- 
stituted for  Latin  or  German. 

No  Fourth  Year  offered  in  the  English  Course. 

COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  1889» 

General  Literary  Course 
first  year 


Arithmetic,  1 
Bookkeeping,  1 
Ur^wing,  1 

Latin  or  German 
Geometry  or  Trigo- 
nometry 
Chemistry 
Arithmetic,  1 
Drawing,  1 

Latin  or  German 
English  History 
Botany 
Drawing,  1 


Latin  or  German,  2 
Algebra,  2 
Arithmetic,  2 
History    of    Mental 

Philosophy,  4 
Essays,  2 
course.    Four  recitations 


Fust  HaU  Year 
Algebra 

Latin  or  German 
English 

Plane  Geometry 
Latin  or  German 
Ancient    History    and 
English 


SECOND  YEAR 


Second  Half  Year 

Algebra 

Latin  or  German 

Physiolc^y  and  Hj^ene 

Algebra 

Latin  or  German 
Mediaeval   and   Modem 
History  and  English 


>  Ammtl  Sepml  Bttri  tf  BdmaOm*,  1889.  pp.  322-23. 


32  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

THIRD  YEAR 

Latin  or  German  Latin  or  German 

Chemistry  Chemistry     and     Trigo- 

Geometry  nometry 

English  Botany  and  English 

United  States  Constitu- 
tion 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Latin  or  German  English  Literature 

English  Literature  Physics 

Physics  Arithmetic   and   English 

Grammar 

Astronomy 

English  Course 

first  year 
Substitutes  English  Composition,  one  year,  and  Botany  one-half  year  for 
Latin  or  German. 

second  YEAR 

Substitutes  Physical  Geography  and  Civil  Government  for  Latin  or  German. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Substitutes  Rhetoric  and  Composition  for  Latin  or  German.     Also  substi- 
tutes Physics,  one-half  year,  for  Trigonometry  and  Chemistry. 

fourth  YEAR 

First  Half  Second  Half 

United  States  History  English  Literature 

English  Literature  Chemistry 

Chemistry  Arithmetic  and    English 
Astronomy  (optional)  Grammar 

Astronomy 

COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  1889» 

Business  Course 
first  year 

First  Term  Second  Term 
Algebra  Algebra 
Phonography    and    Pen-  Phonography    and    Pen- 
manship manship 
English  Physical  Geography  and 

Hygiene 
second  year 

Mental  and  Written  Arithmetic 

Arithmetic  English 

Phonography    and    Pen-  Phonography    and    Pen- 
manship manship 

Physical  Geography  Civil  Government 

1  Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1889,  pp.  322-23. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


33 


Bookkeeping   and    Prac- 
tice in  Phonography 
Geometry  and  Chemistry 


General  History 
English  Literature 
Reviews 
Physics 


THIRD  YEAR 


FOURTH  YEAR 


Bookkeeping   and    Prac- 
tice in  Phonography 
Geometry  and  Chemistry 
English  and  Trigonometry 

English  Literature 
Physics 
Reviews 
Astronomy 


SPRINGFIELD,  ILLINOIS,  1890i 

Four  different  courses  are  provided:  English,  German-English,  Latin-English 
and  Classical.  These  courses  are  not  printed  separately,  however,  and  are  made 
up  of  certain  required  studies  and  electives.  The  subjects,  the  names  of  which 
are  italicized,  are  required. 

Course  of  Study 
FIRST  year 

Winter  Term 

English 

Algebra 

Zoology,  Bookkeeping 

Latin  or  German 

Historical  Reading 

SECOND  YEAR 

English 

Geometry 

Botany 

Latin  or  German 

Historical  Reading 

THIRD  YEAR 

English 
Algebra 

Natural  Philosophy 
Latin,  Greek,  or  Ger- 
man 
Historical  Reading 

FOURTH  YEAR 

English 
Chemistry 
Astronomy,  Geology 
Latin,  Greek,  or  Ger- 
man 
Political  Economy 
Civil  Government 
Composition,  and  Rhetorical 


Fall  Term 

English 

Algebra 

Zoology 

Latin  or  German 

Historical  Reading 

English 
Geometry 

Physical  Geography 
Latin  or  German 
Historical  Reading 

English 
Arithmetic 
Natural  Philosophy 
Latin,  Greek,  or  Ger- 
man 
Historical  Reading 


English 
Chemistry 
Astronomy 
Latin,  Greek,  or  Ger- 
man 
Trigonometry 
Historical  Reading 

Industrial   Drawing, 
course. 


Spring  Term 
English 
Algebra 
Bookkeeping 
Latin  or  German 
Historical  Reading 

English 

Geometry 

Botany 

Latin  or  German 

Historical  Reading 

English 
Geometry 
Natural  Philosophy 
Latin,  Greek,  or  Ger- 
man 
Physiology 

English 
Chemistry 
Geology 

Latin,  Greek,  or  Ger- 
man 
Political  Economy 
Civil  Government 
Exercises  through  the 


I  Annual  Report  Public  Schools,  1890,  p.  54. 


34 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


First  Term 
Algebra 
Grammar 

United  States  History 
Dictation  Work 

Arithmetic 

Rhetoric 

Chemistry 


MORRISON,  ILLINOIS,  1888» 

FIRST  YEAR 
Second  Term 

Algebra 

Grammar 

United  States  History 

Reading 

SECOND  YEAR 

Arithmetic 
English  Literature 
Natural  Philosophy 


Geometry 
Zoology 
Ancient  History 

Latin  is  optional  two 
out  the  entire  course. 


THIRD  YEAR 

Geometry 
Geology 
Ancient  History 
Drawing 
years.    Declamations  and 


Third  Term 

Algebra 

Rhetoric 

Bookkeeping 


Botany 

English  and  American 

Literature 
Natural  Philosophy 


Trigonometry 
Physiology 
Civil  Government 
Astronomy 
recitations  continue  through- 


ATTICA,  INDIANA,  1895« 
The  High  School  Course 


FIRST  YEAR 


First  Semester 
Commercial  Arithmetic 
Elementary  Latin 
Physiology 
English — 3  recitations  in 

Literature,  and  2  in 

Composition 

Algebra 

Latin 

Zoology 

General  History — 4  times 

a  week 
Composition — 1  day  per 

week 


SECOND  YEAR 


THIRD  YEAR 


Algebra 

Latin 

Physics 

English  Authors — 3  days 

per  week 
Composition — 2  days  per  week 


Second  Semester 

Bookkeeping  and  Busi- 
ness Practice 

Elementary  Latin 

Zoology 

English — same  as  first 
semester 

Algebra 
Latin 
Botany 

History  and  English — 
same  as  first  semester 


Algebra 
Latin 
Chemistry 

English — same    as    first 
semester 


i  Report  of  Public  Schools,  1888,  p.  IS. 
*  Report  and  Manual,  1895,  p.  45. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


35 


FOURTH  YEAR 


Geometry 

Latin 

Civics 

American    Literature — 3 

days  per  week 
Composition — 2  days  per 

week 


Geometry 
Latin 

Social  Science 
English — same  as  first 
semester 


EVANSTON  TOWNSHIP  HIGH  SCHOOL,  1894' 
Classical  Course 


FIRST  YEAR 

First  Term                                       Second  Term 

Third  Term 

Latin                                         Latin 

Latin 

Physical  Geography  15         English    History,    23 

Physiology 

weeks                                       weeks 

English                                      Physiology 

Drawing  through  the  year. 

SECOND  YEAR 

Caesar                                       Caesar 

Caesar 

Algebra                                     Algebra 

Civics 

Ancient  History                       Greek 

Greek 

English  alternating  with  drawing. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Geometry                                  Geometry 

Arithmetic  or  solid 

Cicero                                        Cicero 

Geometry 

Greek                                       Greek 

Cicero 

Greek 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Virgil,  Greek,  Physics,  French,  or  German  throughout  the  year. 

Latin-Scientific  Course 
First  year  is  the  same  as  the  Classical  Course.    ' 

Second  year  Zoology  and  Botany  instead  of  Ancient  History  and  Greek. 
Third  year  General  History  instead  of  Greek. 
Fourth  year  English  Literature  instead  of  Greek. 

Modern-Language  Course 
This  is  the  same  as  the  Latin-Scientific  Course  except  that  German  takes  the 
place  of  Latin  after  the  first  year  and  French  is  required  during  the  Senior  Year. 

English  Course 
First-year  Bookkeeping  and  Arithmetic  instead  of  Latin. 
Second-year  Rhetoric  and  Civics  instead  of  Latin. 

Third-year    Plane   and    Solid   Geometry,    Chemistry,    Political    Economy, 
Astronomy. 

Fourth-year  Physics,  General  History  and  English  Literature. 


>  Four-page  pampUet. 


36  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS,  1894i 

Six  Years'  College  Preparatory  Course 
sixth  class — first  year 
Latin,  5  Penmanship  and   Draw- 

English,  4  ing,  2 

Arithmetic  and  Geome-  Physiology  and  Hygiene, 

try,  4  1 

American  History,  4  German,  1 

FIFTH  CLASS — SECOND  YEAR 

Latin,  5  English    and    American 

English,  4  History,  3 

Algebra  and  Geometry,  4  Drawing,  2 

German  or  French,  2 

FOURTH  CLASS — THIRD  YEAR 

Latin,  4  Botany,  4,  Yi  year 

English,  4  Elements  of  Chemistry, 

Algebra  and  Geometry,  4  4,  J/^  year 

until  March,  1  Drawing,  2 

Arithmetic  with  applica- 
tions of  Geometry,  4; 
after  March,  1 

THIRD  CLASS — FOURTH  YEAR 

Latin,  4  Greek,  3 

English  including  Myth-  Plane  Geometry,  4 

ology,  4  Drawing,  2 

French  or  German,  2  Elements  of  Geology,  1 

SECOND  CLASS — FIFTH  YEAR 

Latin,  4  Grecian  and  Roman  His- 

English,  2  tory,  4 

Greek,  4  Plane  Trigonometry  and 

French  or  German,  2  Review  Algebra,  4 

Drawing,  1 

FIRST  CLASS — SIXTH  YEAR 

Latin,  5  English,  German,  French, 

French  or  German,  2  and  American  History, 

Greek,  4  3 

English,  2  Physics,  4 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS,  1895* 

COURSE  OF  STUDY,  ENGLISH  HIGH  AND  MANUAL  TRAIN- 
ING SCHOOL 

Academic 
first  year 

First  Term  Second  Term  Third  Term 

Algebra,  4  Algebra,  4  Algebra,  4 

'  Annual  Report  Board  oj  Education,  1895,  p.  321. 
*  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1895,  pp.  319-20. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


37 


Biology  (Zoology),  4 
Rhetoric  and  Composi- 
tion, 4 
Manual  Training 
Mechanical  Drawing,  4 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 
Joinery  and  Wood-turn- 
ing, 10 
Lectures  on  wood 


Geometry,  3 
Physics,  3 
General  History,  3 
English  or  French,  3 
Book  Reviews 
Mechanical  Drawing,  4 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 
Foundry   and   Black- 
smith Work,  10 
Lectures  on  iron 


Solid  Geometry  or 

Shorthand,  3 
Civil  Government,  3 
Chemistry,  3 
English  or  French,  3 
Book  Reviews 
Mechanical  or  Architect 

Drawing,  4 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 
Machine  Shopwork: 

Chipping,   filing,  and 
fitting,  10 


Biology  (Zoology  and 

Botany),  4 
Rhetoric  and  Composi- 
tion, 4 
Mechanical  Drawing,  4 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 
Cabinet  Work  and 
Bench  Work,  10 
Lectures  on  wood 

SECOND  YEAR 

Geometry,  3 
Physics,  3 
General  History,  3 
Book  Reviews,  3 
Mechanical  Drawing,  4 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 
English  or  French,  3 
Foundry   and    Black- 
smith Work,  10 
Lectures  on  iron 

THIRD  YEAR 

Trigonometry  or  Book- 
keeping, 3 
Shorthand,  continued 

and  typewriting 

commenced 
Political  Economy,  3 
English  or  French,  3 
Chemistry,  3 
Book  Reviews 
Mechanical  or  Architect 

Drawing,  3 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 
Machine   Shopwork: 

Use   of   lathes   and 

planer,  10 
Lectures  on   machinery 

and  its  work 


Biology  (Botany),  4 
Rhetoric  and  Compo- 
sition, 4 
Mechanical    Drawing, 

4 
Freehand  Drawing,  1 
Pattern  Work,  10 
Lectures  on  wood 


Geometry,  3 

Physics,  3 

General  History,  3 

English  or  French,  3 

Book  Reviews 

Mechanical    Drawing, 
4 

Freehand  Drawing,  1 

Foundry  and  Black- 
smith Work,  10 

Lectures  on  iron 

Higher    Algebra    or 
Typewriting,  3 

Political  Economy,  3 

English  or  French,  3 

Chemistry 

Book  Reviews 

Mechanical  or  Archi- 
tect Drawing,  4 

Freehand  Drawing 

Machine  Shopwork: 
Use  of  milling  ma- 
chine, 10 

Lectures  on  machinery 
and  its  work 


WILMETTE,  ILLINOIS,  1898i 

FIRST  YEAR 


Scudder's  Latin  Lessons 
Geikie's  Physiology 
Lockwood's  Rhetoric 

»  Course  of  Study,  1898,  p.  13. 


Montogomery's    English 

History 
Beren's  Mythology 


49656 


38  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

SECOND  YEAR 


Kelsey's  Caesar 
Wells's  Algebra 
Boyer's  Biology 

Kelsey's  Cicero 
Wentworth's  Geometry 


THIRD  YEAR 


Bergen's  Botany 
Slections  from  Literature 


Myer's  General  History 
English  Classics 


COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  1897i 

General  Literary  Course 
Unless  otherwise  indicated,  five  recitations  per  week. 


English,  4 

Physical  Geography,  4 

Latin  or  German 

English,  4 
Ancient  History,  4 

English,  4 

French  and  English  His- 
tory, 4 
Latin  or  German,  4 

Solid  Geometry 
Advanced  Algebra  and 

Plane  Trigonometry,  4 
Physiology  and  Botany,  4 


FIRST  YEAR 


SECOND  YEAR 


THIRD  YEAR 


ONE  ELECTIVE 


Algebra,  4 
Arithmetic,  1 
Drawing,  2 

Latin  or  German 
Algebra  and  Geometry 


Chemistry,  4 
French, 4 
Greek,  4 
Latin 
German 


English  Essays,  1 
United  States  History 

and  Civics,  4 
Latin  or  German,  4 

Physics,  4 
Greek,  4 


FOURTH  YEAR 


ONE  ELECTIVE 


German,  5 
French, 4 
Latin,  5 


English,  4 
Arithmetic 


COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  1897 

English  and  Commercial  Course 

first  year 

Physical  and  Commercial 
Geography,  4  , 


Civil  Government 


Drawing,  2     ^ 


SECOND  YEAR 


English,  4  Bookkeeping,  4 

1  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1897,  pp.  228-29. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 


39 


Phonography 

German 

Latin 

English,  4 

Phonography 

German 

Latin 

English,  4 

Business  Methods,  Com- 
mercial and  Legal 
Forms,  4 

History  and  Civics,  4 

Phonography,  4 
German,  4 
Latin,  4 


TWO  ELECTIVES 


THIRD  YEAR 


TWO  ELECTIVES 


FOURTH  YEAR 


ONE  EUiCTIVE 


Algebra 

General  History,  4 


Business  Methods,  4 

Algebra  and  Geometry 
General  History,  4 


Solid  Geometry,  Ad- 
vanced Algebra,  and 
Trigonometry,  4 

Chemistry,  4 

Physics,  4 


JAMESTOWN,  OHIO,  1896i 

FIRST  YEAR 


First  Semester 
Algebra 
English,  3 
Physics,  2 
Latin,  5 
Drawing  once  a  week  throughout  the  year. 

SECOND  YEAR 

Algebra,  2 
Plane  Geometry,  3 
English,  2 
General  History,  3 
Caesar 


Solid  Geometry 
English,  2 
Physics,  3 
Cicero 

Physical  Geography,  3 
Arithmetic,  2 
Civil  Government 
Virgil 


>  Rules  and  Regulations,  1896,  pp.  19-20. 


THIRD  YEAR 


FOURTH  YEAR 


Second  Semester 
Algebra 
English,  2 
Botany,  3 
Caesar,  5 


Plane  Geometry,  3 
English,  2 
General  History,  3 
Caesar 


English,  2 
Physics,  3 
Bookkeeping 
Cicero 

Physical  Geography,  2 
United  States  History,  3 
Arithmetic,  3 
Grammar,  2 
Virgil 


40 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


APPLETON,  WISCONSIN,  1900i 


First  Term 
Algebra 

Ancient  History 
Latin 

English  Composition,  2 
Expression,  2 


Modern  Classical  Course 
first  year 

Second  Term 
Algebra 
Ancient   History  and 

French  History 
Latin 

English  Composition,  2 
Expression,  2 

SECOND  YEAR 


English    History   and 

Constitution 
Geology  and  Botany 
Caesar,  3 

Latin  Composition,  2 
Literary  Reading,  3 
Expression,  2 

THIRD  YEAR 

Geometry 

German 

Cicero,  4 

Latin  Composition,  1 

Literary  Reading,  3 

Expression,  2 

FOURTH  YEAR 
Physics 
German 
Virgil 

Expression,  1 
Reviews,  3 

German  Course 
first  year 
Substitute  German  for  Latin. 

SECOND  YEAR 

Substitute  German  for  Latin  and  Physiology  for 

THIRD  YEAR 

Substitute  Geology  and  Chemistry  for  Latin. 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Substitute  Literature,  and  Political  Economy, 
for  German  and  Latin. 


English  History 

Geology  and  Physical 
Geography 

Caesar  and  Latin  Com- 
position 

Literary  Reading,  3 

Expression,  2 

Geometry 

German 

Cicero,  4 

Latin  Composition,  1 

Literary  Reading,  3 

Expression,  2 

Physics 
German 
Virgil 

Expression,  1 
Reviews,  3 


Third  Term 
Algebra 
French  History 
Latin 
English  Composition, 

2 
Expression,  2 

Constitution 

Botany 

Caesar,  3 

Latin  Composition,  2 

Literary  Reading,  3 

Expression,  2 


Geometry 

German 

Cicero,  4 

Latin  Composition,  1 

Literary  Reading,  3 

Expression,  2 

Physics 
German 
Virgil 

Theory    and    Art    of 
Teaching 


Geology. 


Psychology  and  Pedagogy 


APPLETON,  WISCONSIN,  1900 

English  Course 
first  year 
Substitute  English  for  Latin. 

» Catahg,  1900,  pp.  54-61. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY  41 

SECOND  YEAR 

Substitute  Rhetoric  and  Composition  for  Latin  and  Physiology  for  Geology. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Omit  Library  Reading  and  substitute  Geology  and  Chemistry  for  German 
and  Literature  for  Latin. 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Same  as  German  Course. 

Commercial  Course 

FIRST  year 

Substitute  Bookkeeping  for  Latin. 

second  year 
Substitute  English  for  Science  and  Shorthand  and  Typewriting  for  Latin. 

third  year 
Substitute  Physiology  and  Commercial  Arithmetic  for  German  and  Short- 
hand and  Typewriting  for  Latin. 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Substitute  Shorthand  and  Typewriting  for  Latin  and  Political  Economy, 
Commercial  Law  and  Pedagogy  for  German. 

APPLETON,  WISCONSIN,  1900 

Manual  Training  Course 
first  year 

First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Algebra  Algebra 

Ancient  History  French  History 

Drawing:  Drawing: 

a)  Notes  on  Experimental  o)  Block  and  Freehand  Let- 

Geometry,  3  tering 

b)  Geometrical    Solution    of  b)  Shade  Lining 

Problems  with  Draught-  c)  Tracing,  Blue  Printing  and 
ing  Instruments,  2  Mounting  Prints  (9 

Shopwork,  10:  weeks) 

a)  Instruction    in    Construe-  d)  Freehand   Drawing   (from 

tion,   care,   and   use   of  models) 

Bench  Tools  e)   Dimension    Sketches,    for 

b)  Joinery  Mechanical  Drawings 

c)  Instruction  and  Practice  in  (from    models),    (9 

putting  Bench  Tools  in  weeks) 

order.  Shopwork,  10: 

Composition  and  Expression  as  a)  Joinery,  12 

in  other  courses  b)  Wood  Carving,  (6  weeks) 

Composition  and  Expression 
as  in  other  courses 
The  shopwork  includes  a  finished  article — such  as  a  stand,  table  grille,  which 
shall  be,  as  far  as  possible,  the  product  of  the  pupil's  work. 


42 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


SECOND 

English  History 
Physiology 
Drawing: 
c)  Mechanical  Drawing  (from 

Copy) 
b)  Tracing  and  Blue-Printing 
from  each  drawing 
Shopwork: 

a)  Lathe- work  in  wood  (hand 

tools) 
Literary  Reading  and  Expres- 
sion same  as  other 


YEAR 

Civil  Government 
Botany 
Drawing: 
c)  Mechanical  Drawing  (from 
models) 

b)  Tracing  and  Blue  Printing 

from  each  drawing 

c)  Notes  on  Pattern  Making 

Molding  and  Casting,  3 
Shopwork: 

o)  Pattern  Making 

b)  Molding 

c)  Casting  (in  brass,  zinc  and 

Plaster  of  Paris) 
Literary  Reading  and  Expres- 
sion   same    as    other 


APPLETON,  WISCONSIN,  1900 
Manual  Training  Course 


THIRD 
First  Semester 
Geometry 

Geology  and  Physical  Geogra- 
phy 
Drawing : 
c)  Pattern   and    Machine 
Drawing  (designing) 
Shopwork 

a)  Pattern  Making 

b)  Molding 

c)  Casting  (in  brass,  zinc  and 

Plaster  of  Paris) 
Literary  Reading  and  Expres- 
sion   same    as    other 


year 

Second  Semester 
Geometry 
Chemistry 
Drawing : 

a)  Elementary  Mechanism 

b)  Notes  on  Forging,  Welding 

and  Tool  Making,  3 
Shop-work 

o)  Forging  (in  iron  and  steal) 

b)  Welding 

c)  Case  Hardening 

d)  Hardening  and  Tempering 

Steel 
Literary  Reading  and  Expres- 
sion   same    as    other 


Physics 
Literature 
Drawing : 

Orthographic  Projection 
Shopwork: 

Bench  Work  in  metals  (6 
weeks) 

Machine  Work  in  metals,  12 
Expression,  1 ;  Reviews,  3 


FOURTH  YEAR 

Physics 


Literature 
Drawing: 

Perspective   Projection,   (9 
weeks) 
Shopwork : 

Machine  Work  in  metals 
Machine  Finishing,  Polishing, 

and  Grinding 
Expression,  1;  Reviews,  3 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY  43 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  subjects  offered  is  revealed  by  the  Courses 
found  on  20-42.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of  six  of  these  with 
respect  to  subjects  included.  Subjects  placed  in  parentheses  are 
not  offered  in  both  schools.    Others  are  common  to  both. 

MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  1862i  CINCINNATI,    OHIO,    1862^ 

MATHEMATICS 

Arithmetic  Arithmetic 

Elementary  Algebra  Algebra 

(Higher  Algebra)  Geometry 

Geometry  (Trigonometry) 

ENGLISH 

(Grammar  and  Analysis)  (Composition) 

(Work  Analysis)  Rhetoric 

Rhetoric  Literature 
Literature 

SCIENCE 

(Botany)  Natural  Philosophy 

(Physiology)  Chemistry 

(Physical  Geography)  Astronomy 

(Geology) 

Natural  Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 

SOCIAL  STUDIES 

(United  States  History)  (Mediaeval  History) 

(Political  Economy)  (Modern  History) 

Ancient  History  (Constitution  United  States) 

Ancient  History 

FOREIGN  LANGUAGE 

Latin  Latin 

Greek  Greek 

(German) 

(French) 

COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS 

(Bookkeeping) 
(Commercial  Forms) 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS 

(Mental  Philosophy) 
(Moral  Philosophy) 
(Butler's  Analogy) 
(Logic) 

» Annual  School  Report,  1863,  pp.  22-23. 

»  Report  of  Common  Schools  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1862,  pp.  70-71. 


44 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


AUBURN,  INDIANA,  1882»  MILWAUKEE,  WISCONSIN,  1884^ 

MATHEMATICS 


Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 


(Reading) 
(Spelling) 
(Writing) 
Grammar 


ENGLISH 


SCIENCE 


Physiology 
Natural  Philosophy 
Chemistry 
(Physical  Geography) 


Arithmetic 
Algebra 
Geometry 
(Trigonometry) 

Grammar 
(Rhetoric) 
(Literature)' 
(Classics) 

Physiology 

Physics 

Chemistry 

(Astronomy) 

(Biology) 

(Geology) 


(United  States  History) 
General  History 
Civil  Government 


Latin 


(Bookkeeping) 


SOCIAL  STUDIES 

General  History 

Civil  Government 

(English  History) 

(Roman  History) 

(Civil  and  Literary  History) 

(United  States  Constitution) 

FOREIGN  LANGUAGE 

Latin 

(German) 

(French) 

COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS 


JAMESTOWN,  OHIO,  1897*  APPLETON,  WISCONSIN,  IWO^ 

MATHEMATICS 


(Arithmetic) 

Algebra 

Geometry 

English,  13^  years 

Physiology 
Physical  Geography 
Botany 
Physics 


ENGLISH 


SCIENCE 


Algebra 
Geometry 


English,  3  years 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography 

Botany 

Physics 

(Chemistry) 

(Geology) 


^Rtiles  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  1882-83,  pp.  9-10. 
'  Annual  Report  School  Board,  1884,  p.  54. 
'  Probably  History  of  English  Literature. 

*  Rules  and  Regulations,  pp.  19-20. 

•  Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools,  pp.  54-61. 


REPRESENTATIVE  COURSES  OF  STUDY  45 

SOCIAL  STUDIES* 

(General  History)  (Ancient  History) 

(United  States  History)  (English  History) 

(Civil  Government)  (French  History) 

(Political  Economy) 
(Constitution) 

FOREIGN  LANGUAGE 

Latin  Latin 

(German) 

COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS 

Bookkeeping  (Bookkeeping) 

(Short  Hand) 
(Typewriting) 
(Commercial  Law) 
(Commercial  Arithmetic) 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS 

(Pedagogy)  (Psychology) 
(Manual    Training,    4  years) 

The  foregoing  courses  selected  for  analysis  were  chosen  from  the 
following  periods:  1860-65,  1881-85,  and  1896-1900.  A  compara- 
tive Study  of  courses  chosen  from  the  other  periods  reveals  the  same 
wide  range  of  difference  in  subjects  offered.  Even  greater  differ- 
ence is  found  in  connection  with  some  of  the  courses.  For  example, 
a  comparison  of  Wilmette,  Illinois,  1898,^  and  Columbus,  Ohio, 
1897,  and  Waterloo,  Iowa,  1870,^  and  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1872,  makes 
this  clear.  It  is  also  evident  that  neither  locality  nor  population, 
except  within  very  broad  limits,  were  determining  factors. 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  was  more  uniformity  in  the  field 
of  mathematics  than  in  other  fields.  This  became  increasingly 
so  as  the  practice  of  offering  higher  mathematics,  quite  common 
in  1860,  gradually  declined  to  the  close  of  the  century.  In  the 
other  fields  marked  lack  of  uniformity  prevailed.  Some  allowance 
should  be  made  for  confusion  in  terminology  in  English  and  the 
social  studies,  but  even  when  this  is  done,  the  practice  in  different 
schools  varied  widely  both  in  amount  of  work  offered  and  in  the 
subjects  as  well.  As  would  be  expected,  commercial  and  miscel- 
laneous subjects  manifest  the  least  degree  of  uniformity.  Details 
relating  to  each  school  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  Tables  A-H. 
For  details  concerning  the  number  of  schools  offering  each  subject 
and  for  summaries,  see  Tables  II-IX  and  X. 

'  It  is  very  probable  that  lack  of  uniformity  appears  to  be  greater  than  it  really  was  on  account  of 
confusion  in  terminology. 
«  Cf.  pp.  37-38. 
'  Cf.  pp.  24-25. 


CHAPTER  IV 

NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED;  TITLES  AND  ORGANIZATION 

1.      NUMBER  AND  TITLES  OF  COURSES 

TABLE  I 

The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of  the  number  of  courses 
offered  by  the  various  schools  in  each  period  and  shows  the  designa- 
tions of  the  courses. 

1. — ^TWENTY  SCHOOLS,  1860-65 

Number  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

1 12 

2 6 

3 2 

Designation  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

Classical 7 

English  and  Classical 1 

English 2 

General 3 

Latin-English 1 

Regular 1 

Normal 2 

2. — TWENTY  SCHOOLS,  1866-70 

Number  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

1 10 

2 9 

4 1 

Designation  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

Classical 8 

English 3 

English  and  Latin 2 

English  and  German 1 

General 3 

3. — TWENTY  SCHOOLS,  1871-75 

Number  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

1 9 

2 9 

3 1 

5 1 

Designation  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

Classical 8 

College  Preparatory 2 

Commercial-English 1 

English 5 

English-German 1 

46 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  47 

English-Latin 1 

Latin 1 

General 5 

Scientific 1 

4. — TWENTY-FIVE  SCHOOLS,  1876-80 
Number  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

1 17 

2 '. 4 

3 3 

4 1 

Designation  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

Classical 4 

Commercial 1 

Commercial-English 1 

English 2 

General 3 

Latin-Scientific 1 

Modern  Classical 1 

Preparatory 1 

Preparatory-English 1 

Scientific 2 

Scientific-Engineering 1 

Technological 1 

5. — TWENTY-FIVE  SCHOOLS,  1881-85 
Number  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

3 14 

2 5 

3 4 

4 2 

Designation  of  Courses                                                                                 Number  of  Schools 

Ancient  Classical 1 

Classical 6 

English 4 

English-Science 1 

General 2 

German 1 

German-English 2 

Latin 4 

Latin-English 2 

Latin-German 1 

Latin-Scientific 1 

Modern  Classical : 1 

Modern  Language 1 

6. — THIRTY-FIVE  SCHOOLS,  1886-90 

Number  of  Courses                                                                                  Number  of  Schools 

1 20 

2 7 

3  5 


48  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

4 1 

5 2 

Designation  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

Academic 1 

Ancient  Classical 1 

Business 1 

Commercial 1 

Commercial-English 1 

Classical 5 

English 9 

French-English 1 

General 3 

General-Literary 1 

General  Science 1 

German 3 

German-English 1 

Latin 5 

Latin-English 1 

Latin-German 1 

Modern  Classical 3 

Normal 1 

Preparatory-English 1 

Regular 1 

7. — SIXTY  SCHOOLS,  1891-95 
Number  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

1 28 

2 13 

3 9 

4 5 

5 3 

6 2 

Designation  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

Business 4 

Commercial 2 

Classical 9 

College  Preparatory 1 

English 20 

English  and  French 1 

English  and  German 1 

English-Scientific 4 

English-German 1 

German 4 

German-English 1 

General  Science 3 

General 1 

German-Scientific 1 

Latin 17 

Latin-English 3 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  49 

Latin-German 4 

Latin-Scientific 4 

Latin-Greek 1 

Literary  and  Science 1 

Modern  Classical 3 

Modern  Language 3 

Normal 1 

Preparatory 1 

Practical 1 

Science 2 

Scientific 6 

8.— SIXTY  SCHOOLS,  1896-1900 

Number  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

1 : 25 

2 12 

3 12 

4 8 

6 2 

7 1 

Designation  of  Courses  Number  of  Schools 

Ancient  Classical 1 

Business 2 

College  Preparatory 1 

Commercial 6 

Complete  Commercial 1 

Shorter  Commercial 1 

Classical 12 

English 1 

English-Science 24 

English-Scientific 3 

English- Latin 1 

English-Commercial 3 

English-German 2 

Engineering 1 

French-English 1 

General 3 

General  Literary 1 

General  Science 3 

German ^ 3 

German-English 3 

German-Scientific 1 

Literary 1 

Language 1 

Latin 16 

Latin-Science 1 

Latin-Scientific 3 

Latin-English 3 

Latin-German 3 


50  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Modern-Classical 

Manual  Training  for  Boys 

Manual  Training  for  Girls 

Natural  Science 

Preparatory 

Philosophical 

Science 2 

Scientific 7 

2.      CURRICULA  ORGANIZATION 

The  courses  of  study  shown  on  pages  20-42  and  Table  I  show 
that  the  criteria  used  in  curricula  organization  were  of  the  same 
generalized  sort  as  prevailed  in  the  early  schools  discussed  in 
chapter  I.  Two  purposes  of  high-school  instruction  are  indicated: 
that  of  preparing  for  college,  and  that  of  preparing  for  life.  The 
absence  of  definite  standards  for  the  organization  of  curricula  for 
the  latter  purpose  is  very  evident.  Those  designed  to  prepare  for 
higher  institutions,  particularly  in  the  earlier  years,  offered  a  very 
narrow  range  of  subjects  determined,  apparently,  wholly  by  en- 
trance requirements.^  As  requirements  changed,  these  courses 
changed,  and  the  tendency  to  include  in  them  subjects  not  required 
for  entrance  is  more  marked  as  time  goes  on.'^ 

In  the  case  of  non-preparatory  college  courses,  there  is  no  appar- 
ent demand  or  complex  of  demands  sufficiently  clear  in  purpose  or 
definite  in  influence  to  secure  any  sort  of  uniformity  in  length  of 
course,  organization,  or  subjects  offered.  The  only  exception  to  this 
is  found  in  the  comparatively  few  business  or  commercial,  normal 
and  manual  training  courses.  The  latter  do  not  appear  until  near 
the  close  of  the  period,  and  even  then  are  rare.  The  normal 
courses  were  usually  only  one  or  two  years  in  length,  emphasizing 
the  common  branches  and  devoting  some  attention  to  pedagogy' 
and  less  frequently  to  psychology.  They  recognized  rather  vaguely 
a  demand  for  the  training  of  teachers,  although  the  attempt  to  meet 
the  demand  was  meager  and  they  reveal  clearly  that  the  purpose 
was  to  prepare  for  teachers'  examinations  rather  than  for  the 
actual  work  of  teaching.  At  best  they  offered  nothing  more  than 
was  provided  by  other  courses  designated  by  the  use  of  other 
titles.  For  example,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  offered  four  courses  in 
1883  having  the  titles,  Ancient  Classical,  Modern  Classical,  Science, 

»  Cf.  p.  20. 

*  Cf .  pp.  23  and  28. 

«  Cf.  p.  23. 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  51 

and  English  and  each  of  these  offered  pedagogy  and  reviews  of  the 
common  branches. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  century  a  few  schools  offered  courses 
providing  a  considerable  range  of  commercial  subjects/  but  the 
rule  was  a  short  course  providing  a  very  meager  offering  of  commer- 
cial subjects.  Even  in  the  four-year  commercial  courses,  as  will  be 
observed  by  reference  to  pages  32  and  41,  the  offering  of  commercial 
subjects  was  limited.  In  the  former,  none  were  offered  in  the  last 
year,  and  in  the  latter,  none  the  first  half  of  the  first  year,  and  in 
third  and  fourth  years,  part  of  the  work  was  elective. 

For  the  most  part,  courses  bearing  such  titles  as  Business  or 
Commercial  were  not  essentially  different  from  other  courses  which 
included  a  meager  offering  of  commercial  subjects  except  that  they 
usually  provided  only  one  or  two  years  of  work.  Until  the  last 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  industrial  and  commercial  demands 
had  very  little  influence  in  determining  the  character  of  high-school 
curricula.  On  the  whole  it  is  very  clear  that  only  educational 
ideals  of  the  most  generalized  sort  determined  differentiation  in 
curricula  except  for  those  students  who  were  preparing  for  higher 
institutions. 

Further  confusion  is  added  by  the  fact  that  many  courses 
undertook  to  perform  both  functions — that  of  preparing  for  college 
and  preparing  for  life.  These  were  always  almost  identical  in  that 
they  provided  the  college  entrance  subjects,  but  frequently  dif- 
fered widely  in  the  other  subjects  included.^  There  are  no  apparent 
well-defined  standards  for  determining  electives.  In  many  of  the 
courses,  subjects  which  may  be  substituted  for  college-entrance 
subjects  are  not  indicated.  For  example,  in  the  course  on  page  21, 
Latin  and  Greek  may  be  substituted  for  other  subjects,  but  the 
substitutions  allowed  are  not  indicated.  On  page  22,  we  find  the 
statement  that  Latin,  German,  French,  and  Spanish  are  optional. 
It  is  probable  that  optional  means  elective,  but  there  is  no  indica- 
tion of  what  subjects  are  to  be  displaced.  In  the  course  on  page 
24,  it  is  almost  certain  that  several  electives  are  provided,  but  there 
is  no  hint  .with  regard  to  what  these  are.  These  are  but  examples  of 
the  confusion  which  one  finds  in  a  study  of  these  courses. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  many  of  the  schools  offered  nominally 
only  one  course.    Table  I  reveals  that  a  maximum  of  three-fifths 

«  Cf.  pp.  31  and  38. 

«  Cf.  pp.  21,  22,  23,  24,  31,  33. 


52  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

(1860-65)  and  a  minimum  of  five-twelfths  (1896-1900)  of  the 
schools  provided  a  single  course.  This  does  not  mean,  of  course, 
that  no  electives  were  provided  and  that  all  the  students  pursued 
the  same  subjects.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  very  probable  that  single 
courses  usually  provided  electives.^  It  is  not  possible  to  state  the 
proportion  of  such  courses  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  since  it  is 
not  clear  in  some  cases  whether  each  student  carried  three,  four,  or 
more  subjects.^  The  general  rule,  no  doubt,  was  four  subjects 
reciting  five  times  per  week  as  a  maximum,  and  in  case  a  course 
provided  more  than  this  number,  electives  were  offered.  In  some 
cases  the  same  rule  did  not  hold  throughout  the  course.^  It  is  also 
true  that  five  recitations  per  week  in  each  subject  was  not  the 
universal  practice.*  Neither  was  the  minimum  number  of  recita- 
tions per  week  always  twenty  when  four  or  more  subjects  were 
carried  by  each  student.  In  some  cases^  it  seems  certain  that  more 
than  twenty  recitations  were  required,  and  in  others®  this  was 
probably  true.  In  other  cases  where  four  subjects  was  the  minimum 
less  than  twenty  recitations  per  week  was  the  rule.^ 

The  plan  of  parallel  courses  rather  than  that  of  single  courses 
with  electives  in  vogue  in  the  early  high  schools  continued  in  favor 
to  the  close  of  the  century.  The  tendency  to  multiply  both  courses 
and  titles  is  apparent.  In  the  period  1860-65,  the  average  number 
of  courses  for  schools  offering  more  than  one  was  two  and  one- 
fourth,  and  seven  different  titles  were  used.  The  average  for  the 
period  1896-1900  was  three  and  one-sixth  courses  and  thirty-six 
titles  were  employed.  The  proportion  of  single  courses,  as  has  been 
pointed  out,  decreased  during  this  same  period  from  three-fifths 
to  five-twelfths.  In  spite  of  the  tendency  to  multiply  both  courses 
and  titles,  there  was  little  gain  with  respect  either  to  clearly  defined 
educational  aims  or  to  definite  use  of  titles.  It  is  probably  true 
that  the  rapid  growth  of  the  high-school  movement  and  the  con- 
stantly increasing  enrollment  resulted  in  this  multiplication  in  an 
attempt  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  various  classes  of  students 
enrolled.    The  demands,  however,  were  evidently  not  sufficiently 

1  Courses  given  on  pp.  24,   25,  26,  28,  and  37   are  examples  of  single  courses  with  electives 
Those  found  on  pp.  25,  27,  28,  34,  and  36  apparently  provided  no  electives. 
«  Cf.  pp.  20,  22,  23,  26. 
«Cf.  pp.  21,22,  28,  34. 
«Cf.  pp.  21,24,  30. 
»  Cf.  pp.  29,  33,  36. 
•  Cf.  p.  36. 
'  Cf.  p.  38. 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  S3 

specific  to  indicate  the  needs  of  these  different  classes.  At  any 
rate,  both  titles  and  courses  lack  evidence  of  such  demands  being 
met,  if  they  were  made  known  to  those  responsible  for  curricula 
making. 

A  few  titles  furnish  rather  definite  information  concerning 
purpose  and  content  of  courses.  This  is  true,  for  example,  of  the 
college  preparatory  courses  having  such  titles  as  Preparatory, 
College  Preparatory,  and  Classical.  On  the  whole,  however,  titles 
furnish  very  little  information  concerning  either  purpose  or  content. 
Such  titles  as  General,  Regular,  and  the  like,  furnish  no  clue  concern- 
ing what  was  offered  or  what  was  left  out.  Greek  was  not  included  but 
there  was  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  regard  to  other  foreign  languages.^ 
In  the  earlier  years  the  two  purposes  of  the  school  were  made  clear 
by  the  use  of  the  terms  "Classical  Department"  and  "Enghsh 
Department"  or  "General  Department."  The  former  term  indi- 
cated a  comparatively  narrow  range  of  subjects  including  always 
Latin  and  Greek  and  the  purpose  was  to  prepare  for  college.  The 
latter  terms  signified  the  absence  of  ancient  language  and  indicated 
a  wider  range  of  subjects  including  frequently  the  modern  lan- 
guages.2 

The  word  "English"  as  applied  to  departments  or  courses  was 
used  in  the  broad  sense  to  indicate  all  subjects  except  Latin  and 
Greek  and  retained  this  general  meaning  even  after  a  multiplication 
of  titles  became  an  established  practice.  The  more  restricted  use 
of  the  term,  as  now  employed,  was  very  rare  prior  to  1880,^  and 
even  after  this  use  became  well  established,  English  courses  did  not 
necessarily  offer  any  more  work  in  English  than  did  the  courses 
having  other  titles.  For  example,  Springfield,  Illinois,  offered  the 
same  work  in  English  in  both  the  classical  and  English  courses.'' 
The  difference  is  found  in  the  substitution  of  science  and  mathemat- 
ics in  the  latter  for  Latin  or  German,  and  Greek  in  the  former. 
The  same  is  true  as  regards  English  in  two  courses,  one  classical 
and  the  other  English  offered  by  Shenandoah,  Iowa,  except  that 
one-half  year  of  etymology  is  substituted  in  the  latter  for  Latin.* 
The  other  subjects  substituted  are  science,   social  studies,   and 

»  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  JacksonvUle,  Illinois,  1878,  p.  76,  and  Second  Annual  Report  of 
Trustees  of  the  Lakeview  (.Illinois)  High  Schools,  1876,  pp.  14-15. 

2  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Detroit,  Michigan,  1863,  p.  63,  and  Annual  Report  Public  Schools, 
Danville,  Illinois,  1871,  pp.  26-27. 

»  C£.  Table  X. 

♦  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Springfield,  Illinois,  1887,  pp.  56-57. 

^  Rules  and  Regulations:  Public  Schools,  Shenandwih,  Iowa,  1894-95,  p.  23. 


54  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

bookkeeping.  The  only  difference  between  the  Latin  and  English 
courses  offered  by  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  is  that  the  latter  offered  no 
Latin  and  substituted  bookkeeping,  science,  and  the  social  studies.^ 
Except  for  bookkeeping,  however,  the  substitutions  were  not  the 
same.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  English  courses  offered  more  work 
in  English  as  time  went  on,  but  this  was  also  true  of  other  courses. 
The  foregoing  examples  will,  however,  serve  to  illustrate  the  general 
sense  in  which  the  term  continued  to  be  used.  The  frequent  use  of 
the  term  as  a  course  title,  either  alone  or  in  combination,  is  revealed 
in  Table  L  This  seems  to  be  very  clear  evidence  of  the  survival  and 
persistence  of  the  educational  ideal  which  gave  rise  to  the  English 
Classical  School  of  Boston,  later  called  the  English  High  School.^ 

This  loose  distinction  between  an  English  education  and  a 
classical  education  is  further  illustrated  by  the  absence  or  infre- 
quent use  of  titles  indicating  the  presence  in  courses  of  other  sub- 
jects. No  course  titles  found  in  Table  I  indicate  that  the  social 
studies  were  offered,  although  Tables  II-IX  show  the  relatively 
large  number  of  schools  offering  these  subjects,  and  Table  XVIII 
indicates  the  comparatively  large  amount  of  time  devoted  to  this 
field  as  compared  with  other  subjects  from  which  course  titles  are 
derived.  Science  is  not  recognized  at  all  in  course  titles  in  the 
earlier  years,  and  at  no  time  is  the  recognition  commensurate  with 
the  importance  of  this  field.  The  infrequency  of  the  use  of  the  word 
"Science"  or  its  derivatives  is  shown  in  Table  I.  It  is  particularly 
noticeable  until  after  1890,  and  then  some  such  hyphenated  title  as 
English-Scientific,  Latin-Scientific,  and  the  like  is  commonly  used. 

The  term  "Science"  or  "Scientific"^  when  used  as  course  titles 
is  no  more  reliable  from  the  standpoint  of  determining  the  purpose 
or  content  of  the  course  than  is  the  term  "English."  The  former 
terms  were  even  less  definite  than  the  latter  since  they  did  not 
indicate  the  exclusion  of  ancient  language.  On  the  whole,  however, 
these  titles  were  justified  since  the  courses  so  named  usually  offered 
a  considerable  amount  of  science.  In  the  later  years,  these  courses 
frequently  included  modern  language,  particularly  German. 

Hyphenated  titles  such  as  Latin-English,  Latin-Scientific, 
English-German,  Latin-German,  and  the  like,  wholly  absent  in  the 
earlier  years,  became  relatively  common  by  1880.    They  invariably 

>  General  Regulations,  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  High  School,  1893,  p.  15. 

*  Cf.  chap,  i.,  pp.  2-3. 

•  The  word  "science"  or  "scientific"  is  used  alone  in  only  twenty  out  of  approximately  three  hundred 
and  twenty  course  titles. 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  55 

offered  the  subjects  indicated  in  the  titles  but  not  infrequently 
different  titles  stood  for  practically  the  same  subjects.  Other  titles 
such  as  General-Literary  and  Philosophical  gave  no  clue  concerning 
what  subjects  were  offered  since  nothing  peculiarly  literary  or 
philosophical  is  discoverable  in  the  courses  so  named. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  course  titles  are  deceiving  and  that 
distinctions  between  courses  were  often  attempted  where  differences 
were  negligible.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  it  is  evident  that  there 
was  a  growing  consciousness  that  the  generalized  ideals  determining 
the  character  of  non-preparatory  courses  needed  to  be  broken  up 
into  more  specific  ones.  The  introduction  of  commercial,  normal, 
and  industrial  subjects,  and  also  the  use  of  titles  indicating  the 
presence  of  these  subjects,  is  an  evidence  of  this.  But  progress  was 
very  slow  and  differentiation  of  courses  continued  without  much 
recognition  being  given  to  commercial  and  industrial  demands. 
The  superintendent  of  the  Chicago  schools  in  1866  urged  the  impor- 
tance of  a  reorganization  of  the  course  of  study  in  order  to  meet  the 
"demands  of  the  community."^  He  commends  the  German 
Realschule  but  specific  recommendations  are  lacking  except  that 
he  urges  the  teaching  of  drawing.  Evidence  is  not  lacking  that  there 
was  serious  opposition  on  the  part  of  school  officials  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  industrial  courses  into  the  high  schools.  As  late  as  1886, 
the  president  of  the  Chicago  board  in  his  report  says : 

During  the  last  few  years  the  tendency  has  been  too  much  toward  the 
practical.  The  ideal  has  been  thrown  aside  and  everything  is  being  measured 
by  gold  and  silver  standards.  Educators  even  are  being  whirled  down  the  stream 
and  education  is  being  measured  by  value  in  dollars  and  cents." 

He  insists  that  the  board  has  acted  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the 
law  and  contends  that  the  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  give  a  "founda- 
tion for  an  education"  which  is  interfered  with  by  an  attempt  to 
prepare  for  specific  vocations.  He  further  says  that  there  is  no 
place  where  the  line  can  be  drawn  since  it  is  "just  as  much  the 
purpose  of  the  public  school  to  educate  the  surgeon  as  it  is  to  educate 
the  carpenter." 

The  high  school  frequently  referred  to  as  the  "people's  school" 
was  not  so  to  any  important  extent  as  far  as  commercial  and  indus- 
trial courses  were  concerned  until  after  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century.     Preparation  for  specific  vocations  was  left  to  private 

>  Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1866,  pp.  46-51. 
*Ihid.,  1886,  pp.  18-19. 


56  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

schools  such  as  commercial  or  business  colleges,  which  were  rela- 
tively numerous,  and  to  the  few  manual  training  schools  founded 
and  maintained  by  private  enterprise.  The  foundations,  however, 
were  laid  in  the  high  schools  for  the  development  of  commercial 
and  industrial  education  so  marked  in  recent  years. 

3.      ORDER  IN  WHICH  SUBJECTS  APPEAR  IN  THE  CURRICULA 

The  order  in  which  subjects  appear  in  curricula  is  important 
for  two  reasons.  First,  it  determines  the  character  of  education  for 
those  who  drop  out  of  school  before  graduation;  and  secondly,  it 
determines  the  organization  from  the  standpoint  of  sequence  of 
courses. 

An  interpretation  of  the  courses  used  in  Table  I  shows  the  fol- 
lowing for  the  several  periods: 

Mathematics. — ^As  would  be  expected,  the  following  sequence 
obtained:  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry.  The 
exception  to  this  order  is  furnished  by  arithmetic  and  algebra. 
These  two  subjects  were  frequently  offered  simultaneously  in  the 
first  year ;  in  a  few  cases  the  former  followed  the  latter  immediately, 
and  in  about  an  equal  number  of  cases  it  was  offered  after  geometry. 
The  tendency  to  place  it  immediately  following  algebra,  increased 
toward  the  close.  When  it  followed  geometry,  it  was  usually 
designated  as  a  review  subject.^ 

Algebra  was  usually  begun  in  the  first  year  and  rarely  after  the 
second.  Geometry  invariably  followed  algebra  and  was  in  turn 
followed  by  trigonometry  and  other  higher  mathematics. 

English. — ^The  usual  order  in  this  field  was  grammar,  composi- 
tion, rhetoric,  and  literature.  The  first  named  was  rarely  offered  in 
any  year  except  the  first.  Like  arithmetic  it  is  sometimes  found  as  a 
review  subject  in  the  last  year,  but  less  frequently .^  Composition  is 
not  easily  classified.  In  the  earlier  years  it  was  frequently  listed  in  a 
footnote  along  with  other  general  exercises.'  Classification  is  also 
made  difficult  by  the  fact  that  the  mention  of  composition  was 
frequently  in  connection  with  other  English  subjects.  Three  stages 
are  quite  well  marked  in  this  particular.  In  the  early  periods  it  was 
associated  with  grammar,  later  with  rhetoric,  and  finally  with 
literature.  When  not  thus  associated,  however,  it  was  rarely 
placed  in  any  year  except  the  first. 

1  Cf.  pp.  26-27. 

»  Cf.  p.  26. 

»  C£.  pp.  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  30. 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  57 

Rhetoric  was  found  in  all  years  of  the  course,  but  most  frequently 
in  the  second  and  third  with  the  former  leading.  The  latter  is 
particularly  true  of  three-year  courses.  After  about  1880  it  is 
found  more  frequently  in  the  first  year  which  is  probably  owing  to 
its  association  with  composition. 

Literature,  offered  under  various  titles,  was  confined  largely 
to  the  third  and  fourth  years  until  about  1890.  In  fact,  during  the 
period  1891-95  it  was  offered  after  the  second  year  in  more  than  70 
per  cent  of  the  schools.  In  the  next  five-year  period  this  percentage 
had  decreased  to  60.  Exact  data  are  not  easily  available  for  atiy  of 
the  subjects  in  this  field  after  the  use  of  the  term  "English"  as  it  is 
now  employed,  came  into  use.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  use  of 
literature  as  a  source  for  composition  work  resulted  after  1890  in  its 
more  frequent  introduction  into  the  earlier  years  of  the  course. 

Science. — The  science  subjects  fall  into  two  fairly  well  defined 
groups,  those  commonly  found  in  the  earlier  years  and  those  in  the 
later  years  of  the  course.  Physiology,  physical  geography,  botany, 
and  zoology  belong  to  the  first  group,  and  physics,  chemistry, 
geology,  and  astronomy  to  the  second.  While  botany  and  zoology 
belong  to  the  first  group,  these  subjects  show  a  greater  tendency 
toward  distribution  over  all  the  years  than  is  the  case  in  the  other 
science  subjects.    This  is  particularly  true  of  zoology. 

Physiology^  was  a  first-year  subject  with  a  few  schools  offering 
it  in  the  second  year.  It  is  rarely  found  after  the  second  year.  This 
condition  was  relatively  permanent. 

Physical  Geography^  belongs  largely  to  the  first  two  years  with 
the  emphasis  rather  decidedly  upon  the  first  year  except  for  the 
periods  1886-90  and  1891-95.  In  the  former,  the  ratio  in  favor  of 
the  second  year  was  4  to  3,  and  in  the  latter,  the  frequency  of 
occurrence  for  the  two  years  was  equal.  During  the  earlier  periods 
it  is  not  found  at  all  in  the  last  year,  but  toward  the  close  there  are  a 
few  cases  in  which  it  is  offered  in  this  year. 

Botany  is  found  most  frequently  in  the  second  year.  The  first 
year  stands  next  in  importance  with  the  third  year  following  closely. 
The  fourth  year  is  never  represented  by  more  than  5  per  cent  of  the 
schools,  and  this  percentage  occurs  in  the  period  1891-95.  In  two 
periods,  1871-75  and  1881-85,  it  was  not  offered  in  the  fourth  year 

1  Offered  in  the  first  year  in  70  per  cent  of  the  schools. 

'  Offered  in  the  first  year  in  50  per  cent  of  the  schools;  in  the  second  year  in  30  per  cent. 


58  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

and  in  the  remaining  periods  by  not  more  than  one  or  two  schools. 
This  distribution  of  the  subject  holds  throughout  the  forty  years. 

Zoology,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  is  not  so  easily  classified  in 
respect  to  frequency  of  occurrence  as  other  sciences.  It  follows 
botany  more  closely  than  it  does  any  other  subject  in  its  field,  but 
not  closely  enough  to  indicate  any  general  practice  of  correlating 
these  subjects  until  after  1890.  On  the  whole,  distribution  between 
the  first  and  second  years  is  fairly  equal,  followed  by  the  third  year 
in  point  of  frequency.  The  fourth  year  also  has  considerable 
representation  as  compared  with  botany.  For  example,  in  the 
period  1891-95,  while  botany  is  represented  in  this  year  by  about 
5  per  cent  of  the  schools,  zoology  is  represented  by  about  20  per 
cent. 

Physics  is  found  in  all  years  but  most  frequently  in  the  third. 
It  very  rarely  appears  in  the  first  year  and  is  found  in  the  second 
year  to  some  extent  in  the  case  of  three-year  courses.  In  the  case  of 
four-year  courses  not  offering  chemistry,  physics  is  usually  offered 
in  the  fourth  year.  If  both  are  offered,  the  latter  usually  preceded 
the  former  although  there  were  exceptions  amounting  to  about  20 
per  cent  of  the  schools  in  1860-65.  Thereafter  the  percentage  fell 
off  rapidly  until  1885,  after  which  it  increased  somewhat  amounting 
to  approximately  15  per  cent  in  1896-1900. 

Chemistry  is  rather  distinctly  a  last-year  subject,  the  exception 
being  chiefly  in  the  cases  when  it  preceded  physics  referred  to  above. 
It  seems  never  to  have  been  offered  in  the  first  year  and  very  rarely 
in  the  second,  even  in  the  case  of  three-year  courses. 

Geology  was  generally  offered  in  the  last  year,  the  third  year 
standing  next  in  point  of  frequency.  The  percentage  of  frequency 
for  the  second  year  ranges  from  0  to  approximately  20  per  cent  and 
there  is  apparently  no  permanent  tendency  in  regard  to  the  second 
year.  Only  two  cases  were  found  in  which  the  subject  was  offered 
in  the  first  year. 

Astronomy  follows  geology  somewhat  closely,  the  percentage  of 
schools  offering  it  in  the  last  year  being  large.  Like  geology,  the 
third  is  next  in  point  of  frequency  in  less  ratio,  while  the  cases  in 
which  it  is  offered  in  either  the  first  or  second  years  are  almost  negli- 
gible. 

The  place  in  a  course  assigned  to  a  science  subject,  with  the 
exception  of  physics  and  chemistry,  seems  to  have  been  determined 
largely  by  administrative  convenience.     As  has  been  pointed  out. 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  59 

when  physics  and  chemistry  were  both  offered  the  former  usually 
preceded,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  the  sequence  was  merely  a  matter 
of  administrative  convenience.  Some  correlation  was  no  doubt 
attempted  and  secured.  The  two  subjects  most  frequently  making 
up  a  year's  work  are  physiology  and  physical  geography.^  There 
seems  to  be  no  reason  for  this  except  that  of  administrative  conve- 
nience. One  would  expect  that  botany  and  zoology  would  be  found 
in  the  same  year  since  each  was  usually  offered  for  one-third  or 
one-half  year;  but  such  is  not  the  rule.  There  seems  to  have  been 
no  general  attempt  at  correlation  except  in  the  few  schools  offering 
biology.  Neither  geology  nor  astronomy  follow  any  rule  in  their 
relations  to  other  sciences  in  the  course. 

The  Social  Studies. — European  history,  taught  under  various 
titles,  is  found  in  all  years  of  the  course  although  rarely  in 
the  last  year.  The  second  year  is  highest  in  point  of  frequency. 
This  is  followed  by  the  third  year  until  after  1895  when  the  first 
year  takes  second  place. 

Aside  from  the  fact  that  ancient,  medieval,  and  modern  history 
v/ere  taught  in  the  logical  order,  there  is  no  apparent  attempt  at 
correlation.  These  subjects  usually  constituted  a  one-year  course 
based  upon  some  textbook  such  as  Swinton's  Outlines,  Barnes's 
General  History,  or  Meyer's  General  History.  English  history  seems 
to  have  been  placed  in  the  course  with  no  reference  to  United 
States  history  or  other  European  history. 

United  States  history  was  almost  exclusively  a  first-year  subject 
until  after  1885,  and  the  emphasis  upon  that  year  continued  to  the 
close.  After  1890  a  considerable  number  of  schools  offered  the 
subject  in  the  last  year,  and  when  offered  in  that  year,  it  was  usually 
designated  as  a  review  subject.  In  1896-1900  more  schools  offered 
it  in  the  last  year  than  in  any  other. 

As  has  been  said,  there  was  no  apparent  correlation  between  this 
subject  and  other  history  subjects.  On  the  whole,  the  same  can  be 
said  of  it  and  civics.  This  is  made  clear  in  at  least  two  ways.  In 
the  first  place,  civics  under  various  titles,  was  offered  in  more 
schools  in  every  period  than  was  United  States  history,  the  ratio 
by  periods  being  as  follows:  8:7,  4:1,  5:2,  3:1,  2:1,  2:1,  and  2:1.  A 
study  of  the  courses  also  reveals  that  the  relative  positions  in  the 
courses  occupied  by  the  two  subjects  make  it  improbable  that  any 
general  attempt  at  correlation  was  made  at  least  until  after  1890. 

'  Cf.  pp.  22,  25,  26,  28,  30,  35. 


60  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

For  example,  civics  is  found  but  once  in  the  first  year  until  after 
1876,  while  during  the  same  period,  United  States  history  was 
rarely  offered  in  any  other  than  the  first  year. 

Little  more  need  be  said  concerning  civics.  Except  for  the  first 
three  periods  referred  to  and  the  period  1891-95,  when  it  was . 
offered  the  first  year  in  approximately  40  per  cent  of  the  schools, 
it  was  fairly  well  distributed  over  the  entire  course.  As  has  been 
said,  it  is  rather  clear  that  some  general  attempt  at  correlation  with 
United  States  history  was  made  after  1890. 

Political  economy  was  offered  in  comparatively  few  schools,  the 
ratio  of  the  subject  to  civics  being  as  follows  for  the  several  periods: 
3:4,  1:4,  1:6,  1:5,  3:8,  2:7,  and  2:5.  It  is  never  found  in  the  first 
year  and  rarely  in  the  second.  For  the  whole  period  covered  by  the 
study,  the  ratio  of  the  fourth  year  to  the  third  is  3 :7.  In  the  earlier 
years  it  is  clear  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  correlate  the  subject 
with  civics,  but  after  1890  there  seems  to  have  been  some  correla- 
tion attempted. 

Foreign  Language. — Since  the  rule  in  Latin  was  to  offer  three 
years  in  a  three-year  course  and  four  years  in  a  four-year  course, 
the  schools  offering  beginning  Latin  in  the  first  year  are  in  an  over- 
whelming majority.  If  but  two  years  were  offered  in  either  a  three- 
or  four-year  course,  then  the  subject  was  begun  in  the  second  and 
third  years  respectively.  Caesar  almost  invariably  followed  the 
first  year.  The  usual  order  after  Caesar  was  Cicero  and  then 
Virgil,  although  the  latter  occasionally  preceded  the  former.  What 
has  been  said  of  beginning  Latin  is  also  true  in  general  of  other 
foreign  languages.  If,  for  example,  but  two  years  of  German  or 
French  were  offered  in  a  four-year  course  it  was  begun  in  the  third 
year.  The  number  of  schools  after  1890  having  beginning  German 
in  the  third  year  is  relatively  large,  being  approximately  50  per  cent. 

Commercial  Subjects. — Bookkeeping  was  a  first-  and  second- 
year  subject,  with  the  former  leading.  It  was  rarely  offered  after 
the  second  year  until  after  1890  when  some  increase  is  noticed. 

Miscellaneous  Subjects. — Mental  philosophy,  moral  philosophy, 
and  logic  are  almost  invariably  found  in  the  last  years  of  the  course. 
The  first  named  usually  preceded  the  second  while  logic  seems  to 
have  had  no  relation  to  the  other  two. 

Pedagogy  and  psychology  were  also  last-year  subjects.  No 
order  of  procedure  is  discernible,  sometimes  one  being  offered  first 
and  sometimes  the  other. 


NUMBER  OF  COURSES  OFFERED  61 

4.      UNITS  OF  TIME  IN  ORGANIZATION 

The  plan  of  three  terms  to  the  year  prevailed  generally  to  the 
close  of  the  century.^  A  few  schools  frorn  the  very  beginning  used 
the  semester  plan^  and  the  comparative  number  had  increased 
somewhat  by  1900.  A  still  less  number  offered  no  subject  for  less 
than  one  year,  and  in  such  cases  some  subjects  had  less  than  five 
recitation  periods  per  week.'  In  one  school  the  year  was  divided 
into  quarters  resulting  in  a  majority  of  half-year  subjects,  and  in  a 
few  cases  in  which  but  a  single  quarter  was  devoted  to  a  subject. 

The  semester  plan,  as  has  been  said,  grew  somewhat  in  favor 
toward  the  close  of  the  century,  and  the  increasing  practice  of 
devoting  at  least  a  half-year  to  a  subject  pointed  very  definitely 
to  a  giving-way  of  the  three-term  plan.  For  example,  a  school 
would  preserve  the  old  plan  but  would  offer  one  subject  during 
the  fall  term  and  the  first  half  of  the  winter  term,  this  being 
followed  by  another  subject  during  the  last  half  of  the  winter  term 
and  the  spring  term. 

Tables  XX-XXVIII,  showing  the  maximum  and  minimum  time 
devoted  to  subjects,  indicate  clearly  the  prevalence  of  the  three- 
term  plan.  The  number  of  schools,  however,  adhering  to  the 
three-term  plan  always  exceeded  the  number  indicated  by  the 
tables  because  of  the  practice  referred  to  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph. 

The  following  tables,  III-X,  constitute  an  analysis  of  Tables 
A-H  from  the  standpoint  of  number  of  schools  offering  the  various 
subjects.  In  Tables  II,  III,  IV,  and  V,  twenty  schools  are  repre- 
sented, twenty-five  in  Table  VI,  thirty  in  Table  VII,  and  forty  in 
Tables  VIII  and  IX. 

>  Cf .  chap.  iii. 
»  Cf.  pp.  21,  24. 
'  Cf.  pp.  36,  38,  39. 


CHAPTER  V 


SUBJECTS  INCLUDED  IN  CURRICULA 

The  following  tables  are  summaries  from  Tables  A-H,  in  Appen- 
dix, inclusive  and  show  the  range  of  subjects  and  also  the  number  of 
schools  offering  the  various  subjects.^ 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  17 
Algebra,  18 
Geometry,  19 
Trigonometry,  12 
Analytics,  2 
Surveying,  8 
Engineering,  3 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  8 
Medieval  History,  3 
Modern  History,  6 
United  States  History,  3 
English  History,  3 
General  History,  3 
Universal  History,  2 
Science  of  Government, 

ment,  3 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 8 
Political  Economy,  4 
History,  2 
History  of  Civilization,  1 


TABLE  II 

TWENTY  SCHOOLS,  1860-65 
English 
Grammar,  12 
English  Analysis,  11 
Word  Analysis,  4 
Reading,  6 
Composition,  IP 
Rhetoric,  18 
English  Literature,  6 
Literature,  1 
Classics,  1 

Elements  of  Criticism,  4 
Elocution,  1 
English,  1 


Foreign  Language 
Latin,  16 
Greek,  7 
German,  7 
French, 4 

Commercial  Subjects 

Bookkeeping,  3 
Business  Forms,  1 


Science 
Physiology,  17 
Physical  Geography, 

17 
Natural  Philosophy, 

20 
Physics,  1 
Chemistry,  17 
Geology,  14 
Astronomy,  14 
Botany,  14 
Natural  History,  5 
Zoology,  4 
Geography,  2 

Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  12 
Moral  Philosophy,   11 
Logic,  5 
Psychology,  2 
Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity, 2 
Ancient  Geography,  2 
Butler's  Analogy,  1 
Domestic  Science,  2 
Natural  Theology,  2 


*  The  number  of  subjects,  particularly  in  English  and  the  social  studies,  is  increased  somewhat  by 
lack  of  uniformity  in  terminology. 

'  Composition  was  actually  taught  in  more  schools  than  is  indicated  in  this  and  the  following  tables. 
It  is  not  included  in  the  count  because  it  did  not  appear  as  a  regular  subject,  but  was  listed  in  the  foot- 
notes as  one  of  the  general  exercises.    More  detailed  explanation  will  be  found  in  Part  II. 


62 


SUBJECTS  INCLUDED  IN  CURRICULA 


63 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  12 
Algebra,  20 
Geometry,  20 
Trigonometry,  14 
Calculus,  1 
Analytics,  1 
Surveying,  4 
Engineering,  1 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  8 
Modern  History,  2 
General  History,  9 
United  States  History,  4 
English  History,  2 
History,  4 
Science  of  Government, 

2 
Civil  Government,  8 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 4 
Political  Economy,  6 
Political  Science,  1 
Chronology,  1 


TABLE  HI 

TWENTY  SCHOOLS,  1866-70 
English 
Grammar,  9 
Analysis,  8 
Reading,  7 
Composition,  8 
Rhetoric,  15 
Etymology,  1 
English  Language,  1 
English  Literature,  13 
American  Literature,  2 
History  of  English  Liter- 
ature, 1 
Elocution,  2 


Foreign  Language 
Latin,  17 
Greek,  13 
German,  11 
French,  6 


Commercial  Subjects 


Bookkeeping,  12 


Science 
Physiology,  15 
Physical   Geography, 

14 
Natural  Philosophy, 

20 
Physics,  1 
Mechanics,  1 
Chemistry,  16 
Astronomy,  18 
Geology,  12 
Botany,  15 
Zoology,  4 
Natural  History,  6 
Mineralogy,  1 
Meteorology,  1 
Geography,  5 

Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  15 
Moral  Philosophy,  9 
Logic,  2 
Drawing,  2 

Classical  Antiquities,  2 
Evidence    of    Christi- 
anity, 1 
Ancient  Geography,  2 
Pedagogy,  2 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  12 
Algebra,  20 
Geometry,  20 
Trigonometry,  15 
Analytics,  1 
Surveying,  4 
Navigation,  1 
Calculus,  1 
Spherical  Geometry,  1 


TABLE  IV 

TWENTY  SCHOOLS,  1871-75 

English 

Grammar,  8 

Analysis,  7 

Reading,  1 

Composition,  12 

Rhetoric,  17 

English  Literature,  18 

American  Literature,  2 

History  of  English  Liter- 
ature, 1 


Science 
Physiology,  17 
Physical   Geography, 

15 
Natural  Philosophy, 

14 
Physics,  4 
Mechanics,  3 
Electricity,  1 
Light  and  Heat,  1 


64 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


English  Language,  1 
Etymology,  2 
Elocution,  2 


Natural  Science,  1 
Chemistry,  18 
Botany,  17 
Zoology,  8 
Natural  History,  4 
Geology,  17 
Astronomy,  16 
Geography,  2 
Mineralogy,  1 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  4 
Medieval  History,  1 
Modern  Histoy,  3 
United  States  History,  5 
General  History,  11 
Universal  History,  1 
Outlines  of  History,  1 
History,  4 
Science  of  Government, 

3 
Civil  Government,  7 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 5 
State  Constitution,  1 
Political  Science,  1 
Political  Economy,  5 


Foreign  Language 
Latin,  18 
Greek,  10 
German,  13 
French,  12 


CommeFcial  Subjects 
Bookkeeping,  10 
Commercial  Law,  1 


Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  10 
Moral  Philosophy,  5 
Logic,  2 

Classical  Antiquities,  1 
Ancient  Geography,  2 
Biblical  Antiquities,  1 
Manual  of  Fine  Arts,  1 
Pedagogy,  1 
Art,  1 
Drawing,  2 

Evidences   of  Christi- 
anity, 2 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  14 
Algebra,  20 
Geometry,  20 
Trigonometry,  11 
Analytics,  1 
Mensuration,  1 
Surveying,  2 
Plane  Geometry,  3 
Solid  Geometry,  1 


TABLE  V 

TWENTY  SCHOOLS,  1876-80 

English 

Grammar,  6 
Analysis,  5 
Word  Analysis,  1 
Reading,  2 
English  Language,  2 
Composition,  12 
Rhetoric,  14 
English  Literature,  14 
History  of  English  Lit- 
erature, 2 
Elements  of  Criticism,  1 
Elocution,  1 


Science 
Physiology,  19 
Physical  Geography 

13 
Natural  Philosophy, 

16 
Physics,  5 
Mechanics,  1 
Chemistry,  13 
Geology,  10 
Astronomy,  13 
Botany,  17 
Zoology,  9 
Natural  History,  6 
Natural  Science,  1 
Meteorology,  1 
Geography,  2 


SUBJECTS  INCLUDED  IN  CURRICULA 


65 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  6 
Medieval  History,  1 
Modern  History,  3 
United  States  History,  5 
English  History,  5 
General  History,  10 
Universal  History,  1 
Outlines  of  History,  2 
History  3 

History  of  Michigan,  1 
Science  of  Government,  3 
Civil  Government,  8 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 4 
Political  Economy,  3 
Parliamentary  Rules,  1 


Foreign  Language 
Latin,  15 
Greek,  8 
German,  12 
French,  3 


Commercial  Subjects 

Bookkeeping,  10 
Business  Forms,  1 
Commercial  Arithmetic, 
1 


Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  8 
Moral  Philosophy,  4 
Logic,  1 

Classical  Antiquities,  1 
Manual  Art,  1 
Drawing,  1 


TABLE  VI 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  22 
Algebra,  25 
Geometry,  25 
Trigonometry,  10 
Surveying,  3 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  5 
Medieval  History,  1 
Modern  History,  1 
United  States  History,  8 
English  History,  8 
General  History,  18 
History,  5 
History  of  Civilization, 

1 
Science  of  Government, 


TWENTY-FIVE  SCHOOLS,  1881-85 
English 
Grammar,  13 
Analysis,  6 
Word  Analysis,  3 
Reading,  6 
Composition,  9 
Rhetoric,  21 
Etymology,  1 
Elocution,  4 
English  Literature,  18 
American  Literature,  3 
History  of  English  Liter- 
ature, 1 
History  of  American  Lit- 
erature, 1 
Literature,  4 
Classics,  8 
English,  1 

Foreign  Language 
Latin,  23 
Greek,  5 
German,  12 
French,  5 


Science 
Physiology,  23 
Physical  Geography, 

17 
Natural  Philosophy, 

18 
Physics,  7 
Chemistry,  20 
Geology,  14 
Botany,  18 
Zoology,  10 
Natural  History,  3 
Astronomy,  12 
Geography,  2 
Biology,  1 


Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  6 
Moral  Philosophy,  3 
Logic,  1 
Drawing,  1 
Pedagogy, 1 


Commercial  Subjects 
Bookkeeping,  17 
Business  Forms,  1 
2      Commercial  Arithmetic, 


66 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Civil  Government,  15 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 4 
Political  Economy,  8 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  25 
Algebra,  30 
Geometry,  26 
Plane  Geometry,  6 
Solid  Geometry,  5 
Trigonometry,  11 
Surveying,  2 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  10 
Medieval  History,  5 
Modern  History,  5 
United  States  History,  16 
English  History,  13 
French  History,  1 
General  History,  17 
Science  of  Government,  1 
Civil  Government,  23 
United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 6 
State  Constitution,  2 
Civics,  1 

Political  Economy,  11 
Historical  Reading,  1 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  28 
Algebra,  40 
Geometry,  33 


TABLE  VII 

THIRTY  SCHOOLS,  1886-90 
English 
Grammar,  20 
Analysis,  4 
Word  Analysis,  5 
Reading,  9 
Composition,  13 
Rhetoric,  25 
English  Literature,  21 
American  Literature,  6 
Literature,  6 
Classics,  1 
Orthography,  1 
Etymology,  1 
Elocution,  2 
First  Year  English,  8 
Second  Year  English,  8 
Third  Year  English,  7 
Fourth  Year  English,  1 

Foreign  Language 
Latin,  25 
Greek,  4 
German,  14 
French,  3 


Commercial  Subjects 
Bookkeeping,  24 
Business  Forms,  1 
Commercial  Arithmetic, 

1 
Business  Arithmetic,  1 
Commercial  Law,  3 
Phonography,  1 

TABLE  VIII 

FORTY  SCHOOLS,  1891-95 

English 
Grammar,  14 
Analysis,  1 
Word  Analysis,  4 


Science 
Physiology,  26 
Physical  Geography, 

27 
Natural  Philosophy, 

11 
Physics,  19 
Chemistry,  18 
Geology,  19 
Botany,  29 
Zoology,  19 
Astronomy,  17 
Geography,  6 
Entomology,  1 


Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  6 
Moral  Philosophy,  3 
Drawing,  5 
Theory    and    Art    of 

Teaching,  5 
Psychology  and  Peda- 
gogy, 2 
Manual  Training,  2 


Science 
Physiology,  32 
Physical  Geography, 
29 


SUBJECTS  INCLUDED  IN  CURRICULA 


67 


Plane  Geometry,  6 
Solid  Geometry,  7 
Trigonometry,  8 
Mensuration,  1 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  13 
Modern  History,  1 
United  States  History, 

15 
English  History,  14 
French  History,  2 
General  History,  25 
Outlines  of  History,  1 
Political  History,  5 
Historical  Readings,  1 
Current  Events,  1 
Social  Science,  1 
United  States  and  State 

Constitutions,  1 
United  States  Civil  Gov- 
ernment, 1 
State  Civil  Government, 

1 
Civil  Government,  25 
Civics,  7 
Political  Economy,  11 


Reading,  1 
Composition,  21 
Rhetoric,  27 
English  Literature,  21 
American  Literature,  9 
Literature,    13 
Classics,  10 
Etymology,  2 
Orthography,  1 
Elocution,  3 
First  Year  English,  13 
Second  Year  English,  9 
Third  Year  English,  6 
Fourth  Year  English,  3 

Foreign  Language 
Latin,  38 
Greek,  7 
German,  21 
French,  5 
Spanish,  1 


Commercial  Subjects 
Bookkeeping,  19 
Business  Forms,  2 
Commercial  Arithmetic, 

3 
Business  Arithmetic,  3 
Commercial  Law,  5 
Commercial  Geography, 

1 
Business  Practice,  1 
Stenography,  3 
Typewriting,  1 


Natural  Philosophy,  5 
Physics,  35 
Chemistry,  28 
Geology,  19 
Botany,  33 
Zoology,    15 
Biology,  2 
Astronomy,  20 
Geography,  2 
Meteorology,  1 


Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  3 
Psychology,  7 
Pedagogy,  8 
Ethics,  1 
Drawing,  3 
Manual  Training,  2 


Mathematics 
Arithmetic,  28 
Algebra,  40 
Geometry,  29 
Plane  Geometry,  12 
Solid  Geometry,  9 
Trigonometry,  9 


TABLE  IX 
FORTY  SCHOOLS,  1896-1900 
English 
Grammar,  14 
Analysis,  1 
Word  Analysis,  5 
Reading,  4 
Composition,  17 
Rhetoric,  25 
English  Literature,  15 
American  Literature 


Science 
Physiology,  28 
Physical  Geography, 

30 
Natural  Philosophy,  1 
Physics,  37 
Chemistry,  26 
Geology,  9 
Botany,  33 


68 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Social  Studies 
Ancient  History,  15 
Medieval  History,  2 
Modern  History,  3 
United  States  History, 

18 
English  History,  20 
French  History,  4 
General  History,  26 
Economic  History,  1 
History,  2 

United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 2 
State  Constitution,  1 
Civil  Government,  24 
Civics,  10 

American  Politics,  1 
Social  Science,  1 
Political  Economy,  16 


Literature,  14 
Authors,  1 
Classics,  5 

History  of  English  Lit- 
erature, 2 
Orthography,  2 
First  Year  English,  17 
Second  Year  English,  14 
Third  Year  English,  11 
Fourth  Year  English,  5 

Foreign  Language 

Latin,  39 
Greek,  10 
German,  23 
•French,  4 


Commercial  Subjects 
Bookkeeping,  29 
Business  Forms,  4 
Commercial  Arithmetic, 


Zoology,  18 
Biology,  4 
Astronomy,  11 
Natural  History,  1 
Geography,  2 
Physiography,  1 


Miscellaneous  Subjects 
Mental  Philosophy,  1 
Moral  Philosophy,  1 
Psychology,  9 
Ethics,  2 
Pedagogy,  6 
Drawing,  6 
Domestic  Science,  1 
Manual  Training,  1 


Commercial  Law,  9 

Commercial  Geography, 
3 

Business  Correspon- 
dence, 1 

Banking,  1 

Stenography,  5 

Phonography,  1 

Typewriting,  5 

The  wide  range  of  subjects  offered  in  the  early  courses  of  study, 
particularly  in  certain  fields,  is  shown  in  Tables  II-IX.  This  does 
not  mean,  of  course,  that  a  majority  of  schools  offered  all  the  sub- 
jects listed.  On  the  contrary,  only  a  few  schools  offered  the  wide 
range.  Tables  A-H,  Appendix,  show  the  marked  difference  in  this 
particular  among  the  schools.  These  tables  also  indicate  the 
constants  and  variables  in  the  curricula. 

In  some  fields,  the  number  of  subjects  is  not  as  large  as  the  tables 
indicate  because  of  lack  of  uniformity  in  terminology.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  English  and  the  social  studies.  For  example, 
grammar,  analysis,  and  sentential  analysis  do  not  necessarily  indi- 
cate different  types  of  subject-matter.  The  same  is  true  of  reading, 
classics,  and  literature.     Civics,   civil  government,  and  science  of 


SUBJECTS  INCLUDED  IN  CURRICULA  69 

government  are  examples  in  the  field  of  social  studies.  Another 
example  in  this  same  field  is  the  various  titles  used  in  European 
history.  Mensuration  and  conic  sections  in  mathematics,  and 
mechanics,  meteorology,  mineralogy,  magnetism,  heat  and  light, 
and  electricity  in  science  are  further  examples. 

The  wide  range  of  subjects  is  not,  however,  wholly  accounted  for 
by  a  multiplication  of  terms.  Some  of  the  schools  actually  offered 
a  comparatively  wide  range  of  subjects,  including  some  which  are 
not  found  at  all  in  present  secondary  curricula.  In  mathematics,  in 
addition  to  the  subjects  now  included  in  high-school  curricula, 
trigonometry  was  much  more  common  than  at  the  present  time, 
and  analytics,  calculus,  surveying,  and  navigation,  which  were 
offered  in  a  few  of  the  earlier  schools,  practically  disappeared 
after  1880. 

In  the  case  of  English  the  opposite  is  true.  Some  schools  offered 
very  little  in  this  field  and  the  practice  was  common  in  the  early 
years  even  in  the  large  schools  to  omit  English  in  the  classical 
courses.  On  the  whole,  the  range  of  work  provided  was  compara- 
tively narrow  until  about  1885,  except  in  a  few  of  the  larger  schools. 

Science  is  one  of  the  fields  in  which  a  wide  range  of  subjects  was 
offered.  The  general  practice  was  to  offer  short  courses  in  several 
science  subjects  rather  than  longer  courses  in  two  or  three  subjects. 
This  was  particularly  true  in  the  earlier  periods,  while  toward  the 
close  the  practice  was  more  general  to  offer  fewer  subjects  with  no 
diminution  of  time  devoted  to  the  field. 

The  social  studies,  like  English,  received  less  attention  in  a 
majority  of  schools  than  at  the  present  time.  Here,  again,  as  in 
English,  the  range  of  work  increased  somewhat  in  the  larger  schools 
and  the  number  of  schools  offering  the  wider  range  of  subjects 
increased  as  time  went  on.^ 

The  range  of  work  in  the  foreign  languages  differed  very  little 
throughout  the  forty  years.  Except  for  the  elimination  of  advanced 
subject-matter  offered  in  Latin  by  a  few  of  the  earlier  schools,  the 
work  in  the  foreign  languages  remained  practically  unchanged. 

In  the  commercial  field,  except  for  bookkeeping,  little  was 
offered  until  near  the  close  of  the  century.  Judged  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  narrow  range  of  work  and  the  comparatively  large 

'  Courses  of  study  after  1900  show  that  the  increase  of  amount  of  work  in  English  continues  until 
four  years  of  work  becomes  the  standard.  The  same  tendency  is  also  shown  in  the  social  studies  although 
less  marked.    See  Part  HI. 


70  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

percentage  of  schools  offering  no  commercial  work,  it  is  very  clear 
that  on  the  whole  high  schools  provided  very  little  in  the  way  of 
commercial  education. 

The  miscellaneous  subjects  were  relatively  numerous  in  the 
earlier  years.  Some  of  these  received  considerable  attention  while 
others  were  offered  in  but  few  curricula  as  shown  by  the  tables. 
Mental  and  moral  philosophy,  being  offered  in  more  than  half  the 
schools  in  1860,  headed  the  list  in  point  of  frequency,  and  logic 
was  next  to  these  in  importance.  Other  subjects  such  as  evidences 
of  Christianity,  ancient  geography,  biblical  antiquities,  classical 
antiquities,  Butler's  Analogy,  natural  theology,  ethics,  and  art 
were  each  offered  in  a  few  schools  prior  to  1880.  Drawing  was 
offered  in  a  few  schools  in  all  the  periods.  Psychology  was  offered 
in  1860  and  then  dropped  out  until  1890.  Pedagogy  was  included 
in  the  list  in  all  except  two  periods.  Domestic  science  was  found 
in  two  schools  in  1860  and  in  one  in  1900.  Manual  training  was 
just  beginning  to  receive  attention  at  the  close  and,  like  domestic 
science,  its  development  belongs  to  the  present  century. 

In  the  following  chapter,  Table  X  shows  a  further  analysis  of 
Tables   II-IX,   dealing  especially  with  constants  and  variables. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CONSTANTS  AND  VARIABLES 

Table  X  indicates  the  percentage  of  schools  offering  the  different 
subjects  in  the  various  fields  for  the  several  periods.  This  table  does 
not,  of  course,  represent  with  absolute  accuracy  the  comparative 
percentages  of  schools  offering  the  subjects  because  the  same 
schools  do  not  enter  into  all  the  computations.  It  does,  however, 
make  clear  that  some  subjects  were  relatively  constant  while  others 
were  variable  in  different  degrees,  and  it  also  shows  tendencies  of 
subjects  to  increase  or  decrease  in  importance. 

TABLE  X 

Percentage  of  Schools  Offering  the  Different  Subjects  for 

THE  Several  Periods 


Subjects 

1860- 
65 

1866- 
70 

1871- 

75 

1876- 
80 

1881- 
85 

1886- 
90 

1891- 
95 

1896- 
1900 

Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

85 
90 

60 

100 

60 
100 

70 
100 

88 

100 

83 
100 
20 
17 
80 
36 

70 

100 

15 
17H 
82  M 
20 

65 

Algebra 

100 

Plane  Geometry 

25 

Solid  Geometry 

22J^ 

Geometry 

95 
60 
10 
40 
10 

100 

70 

5 

20 

5 

100 

75 

5 

20 

100 

75 

5 

10 

100 
40 

12}i 

Trigonometry 

Analytics 

im. 

Surveying 

12 

6 

Engineering 

Mensuration 

5 

2H 

Calculus 

5 

5 
5 
5 

40 

35 

Navigation 

Spherical  Geometry. . 

English — 

Grammar. . .'. 

60 

55 
20 
30 
55 
90 
30 

5 

45 
40 

30 

25 

5 

10 
60 
85 
70 
15 

52 
24 
12 
24 
36 
84 
72 
12 
16 

66 
15 
17 
30 
42 
83 
70 
20 
20 

35 

10 

2M 
52H 
67M 
52^ 

22K 
32^ 

35 

Analysis 

IM 

Word  Analysis 

12 

Reading 

35 
40 
75 
65 
10 

5 
60 
85 
90 
10 

10 

Composition . ' 

Rhetoric 

42  - 
623^ 

English  Literature . . 
American  Literature. 
Literature 

37)4 
15 
35  ' 

71 


72 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


TABLE  X— Continued 

Percentage  of  Schools  Offering  the  Different  Subjects  for  the  Several 

Periods 


Subjects 

1860- 
65 

1866- 
70 

1871- 
75 

1876- 
80 

1881- 
85 

1886- 
90 

1891- 
95 

1896- 
1900 

Classics    

5 
20 

32 

3 

25 

15 

Elements  of  Criticism 

5 

Orthography . 

3 

5 

Orthoepy       

Elocution 

5 

10 

10 

5 

16 
4 

6 

English 

First  Year  English . . . 

26 

26 

23 

3 

32M 
22H 
15 

7M 

42  H 

Second  Year  English. 

35 

Third  Year  English .  . 

271^ 

Fourth  Year  English . 

15 

History  of  English 
Literature 

5 

5 
5 

75 
65 
100 
5 
80 
60 
90 
75 
20 

5 
5 

85 
75 
70 
20 
90 
85 
80 
85 
40 

10 
10 

95 
65 
80 
25 
65 
50 
65 
85 
45 

4 

English  Language .... 

Science — 

Phvsiolosrv 

85 

90 

100 

5 

?  85 

J  70 

70 

f  70 

1.20 

92 
68 
72 
28 
60 
56 
48 
72 
40 

4 
12 

8 

87 
90 
36 

k 

64 
'57 
97 
64 

80 

i2y2 

87K 

65 

47  M 

50 

823^ 

37H 

70 

Physical  Geography . . 
Natural  Philosophy  . . 
Physics 

75 
95 

Chemistry 

Geology 

22H 

Astronomy 

27H 

Botany 

82M 

Zoology 

42  V^ 

Bioloery 

10 

Natural  History*.  . .  . 
Geography 

25 
10 

30 

25 
5. 
5 
5 

20 
10 

30 
10 

20 

5 
5 

2^ 

5 

Mineralogy 

Meteorology 

15 

5 
5 

5 
5 

Mechanics 

Electricity 

Natural  Science 

Physiography 

2H 

Light  and  Heat 

5 
20 

15 

25 

Social  Studies — 

Ancient  History 

Medieval  History 

Modern  History 

United  States  History 

English  History 

French  History 

40 
15 
30 
15 
15 

40 
5 

10 
20 
10 

30 
5 
15 
25 
25 

20 

4 

4 

32 

32 

33 
17 
17 
53 
43 
3 

32M 

2M 
37^ 
35 

5 

37J^ 
5 

45 
50 
10 

•The  disappearance  of  natural  history  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  loss  to  its  field  since  the  subject- 
matter  was  taken  care  of  by  botany,  zoology,  and  biology. 


CONSTANTS  AND  VARIABLES 


73 


TABLE  X — Continued 
Percentage  of  Schools  Offering  the  Different  Subjects  for  the  Several 

Periods 


Subjects 

1860- 
65 

1866- 
70 

1871- 
75 

1876- 
80 

1881- 
85 

1886- 
90 

1891- 
95 

1896- 
1900 

General  History 

Universal  History .  .  . 
Outlines  of  History .  . 

15 
10 

45 

55 
5 
5 

15 
35 

50 

5 
10 

15 
40 

72 

58 

62y2 

65 

2^ 

Science  of  Govern- 
ment   

15 

10 
40 

8 
60 

3 

85 

Civil  Government .  .  . 

623^ 
2K 

17H 

60 

United  States  Civil 
Government 

State  Civil  Govern- 
ment  

Civics 

3 

18 
6 

25 

United  States  Consti- 
tution   

40 

20 

25 
5 

20 

16 

5 

State  Constitution .  . . 

United  States  and 
State  Constitution. 

2^ 
27M 

2H 

2M 

Political  Economy .  . . 
Historical  Reading. . . 

20 

30 

25 

15 

32 

36 
3 

40 

Social  Science 

Current  Events 

Political  History 

Political  Science 

5 
20 

5 

History 

10 

10 
5 

5 

20 

5 

Parliamentary  Rules. 

State  History 

History  of  Civilization 
Chronology 

5 

4 

Foreign  Languages — 
Latin : 

One  year 

80 

85 
5 
15 
20 
40 
65 
10 
35 
10 

90 
20 
5 
20 
45 
50 
20 
20 
20 

75 

92 

83 
3 
17 
30 
33 
15 

95 

2H 
15 
25 
63 
17^ 

97J^ 

Two  years 

Three  years 

Four  years 

Greek: 

One  year 

20 
30 
5 
35 
10 
20 
10 

5 
20 
45 
40 

5 
20 
15 

12 
40 
40 
20 

7M 
15 
75 
25 

Two  years 

Three  years 

Four  years 

20 

6 
6 

5 

20 
2K 
2M 

German : 

One  year 

35 

55 
5 

15 
15 
15 

65 
25 
15 
20 
15 

60 
5 

10 
10 

35 

48 
4 

12 
8 

24 

46 
3 
13 
10 
20 

52 
10 
27 

5 
10 

57M 
7H 

Two  years 

Three  years 

20 

27H 

Four  years 

5 

22^ 

74 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


TABLE  X — Continued 
Percentage  of  Schools  Offering  the  Different  Subjects  for  the  Several 

Periods 


Subjects 

1860- 
65 

1866- 
70 

1871- 
75 

1876- 
80 

1881- 
85 

1886- 
90 

1891- 
95 

1896- 
1900 

French : 

One  year 

20 
10 
10 

5 

30 

15 
10 

5 

60 
30 
15 
15 
5 

15 

20 

10 

15 
10 

.    2^ 

10 

Two  years 

Three  years 

Four  years 

5 

5 
5 

16 

4 

10 

10 

23^ 
2^ 

Spanish : 

One  year 

5 

Two  years 

Three  years 

Four  years 

5 

40 
5 

2^ 

48 
5 
12K 

15 

2y2 

2M 
7H 
2M 

Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Business  Forms 

60 

50 

50 
5 

68 
4 

80 

3 

10 

6 

3 

673^ 
10 

Commercial  Law .... 

5 

22^ 

Commercial  Arithme- 
tic  

5 

8 

20 

Phonography 

2H 

Commercial  Geogra- 
phy  

7K 

Business  Practice .... 

214 

Stenography 

12K 

Typewriting 

121^ 

Banking 

2H 

Miscellaneous — 

Mental  Philosophy. . . 
Moral  Philosophy .  .  . 
Logic 

60 
55 
25 
10 

75 
45 
10 

50 
25 
10 

40 

20 

5 

24 

12 

4 

20 
10 

7H 

2M 
23^ 

Psychology 

15 
2H 
20 

223^ 

Ethics 

5 

Pedagogy 

10 

5 

5 

5 

10 

4 

23 

15 

Art 

Manual  of  Art 

5 
5 

Drawing 

10 

4 

16 
6 

7H 
5 

15 

Manual  Training .... 

5 

Classical  Antiquities. 
Evolution  of  Chris- 
tianity   

10 
10 

10 

5 
10 

5 

10 

10 

5 

5 

Ancient  Geography .  . 
Biblical  Antiquities .  . 

Domestic  Science. .  . . 

10 

10 

5 

23^ 

National  Theology. . . 
Butler's  Analogy.  .  .  . 

CONSTANTS  AND  VARIABLES  75 

In  the  first  place,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  fields,  Table  X 
(and  also  Tables  A-H  in  more  detail)  shows  that  all  the  schools 
offered  something  in  mathematics,  English,  and  science  in  all  the 
periods.  The  social  studies  belong  to  this  group  after  1870.  Prior 
to  that  date  10  per  cent  of  the  schools  offered  nothing  in  this  field. 

Foreign  language  was  offered  in  the  following  percentages  of 
schools  for  the  several  periods:  80,  85,  95,  75,  92,  87,  95,  and  97}/^, 
respectively.  Commercial  subjects  for  all  the  periods  show  the 
following  percentages:  40,  60,  55,  60,  68,  70,  45,  and  65.  The 
miscellaneous  subjects  are  represented  by  the  following  in  the 
several  periods:  75,  70,  55,  40,  47,  45,  and  40. 

It  will  be  seen  that  mathematics,  English,  and  science  were  the 
constants,  the  social  studies  being  in  this  group  after  1870.  Foreign 
language,  represented  in  80  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  1860,  was 
offered  in  973^  per  cent  in  1900.  The  commercial  subjects  increase 
from  40  per  cent  in  1860  to  65  per  cent  at  the  close,  while  the  miscel- 
laneous group  decreased  from  75  per  cent  to  40  per  cent.  These 
subjects  fall  into  two  groups.  The  first  includes  mental  philosophy, 
moral  philosophy,  logic,  and  others  mentioned  on  page  74  which 
were  taught  in  the  earlier  years,  while  psychology,  pedagogy,  and 
manual  training  belong  to  the  second  group  and  were  taught  in  the 
later  years.  The  comparatively  high  percentages  of  the  first  group 
hold  rather  steadily  until  after  1875  when,  with  the  exception  of 
drawing,  they  rapidly  disappear.  The  second  group,  somewhat 
overlapping  the  period  occupied  by  the  first  group,  is  comparatively 
unimportant  even  at  the  close. 

Table  X  furnishes  details  concerning  constants  and  variables 
from  the  standpoint  of  subjects  offered.  As  indicated  on  page  97  the 
table  should  not  be  interpreted  as  furnishing  exact  comparative 
data^  for  the  several  periods  but  rather  that  it  shows,  first,  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  subjects  for  the  several  periods  in  different 
degrees,  and  secondly,  the  tendencies  with  respect  to  the  entire 
period  under  discussion. 

In  mathematics,  except  for  the  first  period,  algebra  and  geome- 
try were  the  constants.  After  1885  there  is  some  overlapping  in 
geometry  due  to  confusion  in  terminology.  Arithmetic  is  next  in 
importance  and  was  offered  in  85  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  1860 
and  in  65  per  cent  at  the  close.  The  varying  percentages  from 
period  to  period  do  not  probably  indicate  that  the  subject  came 

>  The  same  schools  are  not  used  in  all  the  tables. 


76  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

and  went  in  any  such  arbitrary  fashion  in  the  degree  indicated  by 
the  table.^  Tables  A-H,  however,  do  show  that  it  was  a  variable  in 
certain  schools  being  offered  at  one  time  and  omitted  at  another .^ 
On  the  whole,  the  subject  declined  in  importance.  Trigonometry 
stands  next  in  importance,  and  declines  from  60  per  cent  at  the 
beginning  to  22^  per  cent  at  the  close.  Higher  mathematics,  as 
reference  to  the  table  will  show,  was  represented  in  a  considerable 
number  of  schools  in  1860.  The  decline  thereafter  was  rapid  and 
these  subjects  had  practically  disappeared  by  1885. 

The  facts  concerning  English  subjects  are  not  easily  determined 
because  of  the  confusion  in  terminology.  This  was  caused  in  several 
ways.  For  example,  literature,  on  the  one  hand,  was  taught  under 
various  titles  such  as  reading,  classics,  literature,  English  literature, 
American  literature,  and  history  of  English  literature.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  term  "Hterature"  meant  history  of  English  literature 
and  sometimes  the  whole  of  certain  masterpieces.  Further  uncer- 
tainty is  added  by  the  introduction  of  the  general  term  English 
after  1885. 

Grammar,^  like  arithmetic,  was  a  variable  and  on  the  whole 
declined  in  importance.  How  much  the  actual  decline  was,  is  not 
easily  determined  since  it  is  certain  that  the  subject  was  taught  in 
some  schools  under  the  general  title  English  after  1885.  When  we 
take  into  account,  however,  that  for  our  purpose  here  English 
analysis  may  be  regarded  as  grammar,  it  is  evident  that  the  decline 
was  considerable. 

In  the  case  of  composition  the  table  should  be  interpreted  in  the 
light  of  two  facts,  viz.:  (1)  The  subject  was  not  so  commonly 
taught  in  the  earlier  years  as  a  regular  subject  as  was  the  case  in  the 
later  years,  the  earlier  practice  being  to  list  it  as  a  footnote  along 
with  other  subjects  such  as  declamation,  music,  writing,  and  the 
like.  (2)  The  evidence  is  clear  that  the  subject  was  taught  more  or 
less  in  connection  with  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  literature,  and  in 
such  cases  was  not  always  mentioned  in  the  course.  Taking  into 
account  all  the  conditions  under  which  the  subject  was  taught,  it  is 
clear  that  its  importance  increased  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
number  of  schools  offering  it  and  the  time  devoted  to  it.     It  is 

•  The  same  schools  are  not  used  in  all  the  tables. 

'  For  example,  Chicago,  Illinois,  and  Cleveland,  Ohio,  offered  the  subject  in  1860-65  but  not  in  1866- 
70,  while  Dubuque,  Iowa,  offered  it  during  the  latter  period  but  not  in  the  former. 

'  As  an  example  of  a  single  school,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  offered  the  subject  in  1860,  but  it  is  not 
included  in  the  curriculum  of  1867.  It  is  again  included  in  the  list  of  subjects  in  1876,  1883,  and  1887. 
The  subject  is  not  offered  in  1892  nor  thereafter  unless  included  in  the  general  term  "English." 


CONSTANTS  AND  VARIABLES  77 

usually  a  first-year  subject  when  listed  separately  and  the  decrease 
of  10  per  cent  from  1895  to  1900  is  exactly  balanced  by  the  increase 
of  the  use  of  the  term  English  in  designating  first-year  work. 

Rhetoric  ranked  next  to  literature  in  importance  and  there  was 
not  much  change  relatively  in  the  number  of  schools  offering  the 
subject  until  1890.  Part  of  the  falling  off  in  the  last  two  periods  is 
probably  only  apparent  since  the  general  term  English  no  doubt 
included  rhetoric.  But  a  study  of  the  table  will  show  that  a  decrease 
of  approximately  20  per  cent  from  1890  to  1900  cannot  all  be 
accounted  for  in  this  way.  There  was,  no  doubt,  some  decline  in 
the  subject  after  the  former  date. 

The  facts  concerning  literature,  like  those  of  the  other  subjects 
in  its  field,  are  not  easily  determined  after  1885  because  of  the  use 
of  the  general  term  English.  Confusion  is  still  further  introduced 
because  of  the  lack  in  some  cases  of  definite  information  concerning 
the  character  of  the  subject-matter  called  "reading."  Tables  A-H 
show  rather  conclusively  that  literature  was  not  a  constant  until 
after  1885.  Probably  not  more  than  60  per  cent  of  the  schools 
offered  the  subject  in  1860.  Under  one  title  or  another  it  increased 
in  importance  thereafter  and  after  1885  it  was  a  constant. 

The  science  field  was  a  constant,  some  subjects  being  offered  in 
all  the  schools.  No  one  subject,  however,  was  strictly  a  constant, 
although  physics  was  practically  so.  It  was  offered  in  all  the  schools 
included  in  Tables  A-H  except  for  the  periods  1871-75,  1876-80, 
and  1896-1900,  the  percentage  being  95  for  each  of  these.^  The 
next  nearest  approach  in  this  field  to  being  a  constant  was  made  by 
physiology.  The  average  for  the  several  periods  was  approximately 
85  per  cent,  the  maximum  being  95  per  cent  in  1876-80,  and  the 
minimum  70  per  cent  in  1896-1900.  Botany  ranks  next  with  an 
average  of  78  per  cent  which  is  closely  followed  by  physical  geog- 
raphy and  chemistry,  each  having  an  average  of  75  per  cent. 
The  next  highest  average,  60  per  cent,  is  held  by  astronomy  although 
at  the  close  it  was  offered  in  less  than  25  per  cent  of  the  schools. 
An  average  of  approximately  55  per  cent  is  held  by  both  geology 
and  zoology .2  The  former  declines  rapidly  after  1890,  being  offered 
in  approximately  but  25  per  cent  of  the  schools  at  the  close.  Zoology 
holds  rather  close  to  the  average  throughout  except  for  the  period 
1876-80  when  it  reaches  its  maximum  at  75  per  cent. 

1  It  is  probable  that  subject-matter  belonging  to  the  subject  was  taught  in  all  the  schools  except  for 
the  period  1896-1900,  but  a  positive  conclusion  is  not  possible  because  of  confusion  in  terminology. 

2  Including  natural  history. 


78  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

The  status  of  European  history  is  not  easily  determined  from 
Table  X,  but  Tables  A-H  show  that  the  subject  was  offered  in  some 
form  in  all  the  schools  in  four  of  the  periods  and  in  90  per  cent  of 
them  the  other  four — first,  second,  sixth,  and  seventh, 

French  history  is  practically  negligible  while  English  history 
is  found  in  all  periods  except  the  third  and  reached  its  maximum, 
50  per  cent,  at  the  close. 

United  States  history  does  not  exceed  25  per  cent  until  after 
1880,  reaches  its  maximum,  53  per  cent,  in  1886-90,  and  was 
taught  in  45  per  cent  of  the  schools  at  the  close.  Civics,  under  its 
various  titles,  was  offered  by  a  majority  of  schools  in  all  periods, 
the  minimum  being  55  per  cent  in  1860-65,  and  is  found  in  approxi- 
mately 90  per  cent  of  the  schools  after  1885.  Political  economy 
begins  with  20  per  cent,  drops  to  15  per  cent  in  1876-80,  and  reaches 
its  maximum,  40  per  cent,  at  the  close. 

Latin^  was  offered  in  a  minimum  of  75  per  cent  of  the  schools, 
1876-80,  and  in  a  maximum  of  97^  per  cent  at  the  close.  It  will 
be  seen  by  reference  to  Table  X  that  with  the  exception  of  the  first 
period  a  plurality,  and  during  three  periods,  1871-75,  1891-96, 
1896-1900,  a  majority  of  the  schools  offered  four  years.  The 
general  tendency  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  schools  offering 
the  subject. 

Greek  was  always  relatively  unimportant  and  declined  rather 
rapidly  after  1875.  After  1880  no  schools  are  listed  which  offer 
but  one  year  and  only  one  school  was  found  offering  four  years. 
The  largest  number  of  schools  offered  two  years. 

German  stands  next  to  Latin  in  percentage  of  schools  offering 
the  subject.  Approximately  50  per  cent  of  the  schools  taught 
German,  and  there  is  no  general  movement  revealed  either  as  to 
increased  or  decreased  attention  given  it.  The  number  of  schools 
offering  but  one  year  was  relatively  small,  while  there  was  consider- 
able fluctuation  from  period  to  period  in  percentages  of  two-, 
three-,  and  four-year  courses. 

French  was  rather  distinctly  a  large-school  subject  and  this 
accounts  for  the  high  percentage  in  1871-75,  Table  C,  Appendix, 
including  a  proportionately  large  number  of  city  schools.  The 
subject  was  relatively  unimportant,  and  there  is  on  the  whole  a 
decrease  in  schools  offering  it. 

1  Total  percentages  for  all  the  foreign  languages  do  not  always  tally  with  footings  for  the  several 
years  because  detailed  data  in  some  cases  are  lacking. 


CONSTANTS  AND  VARIABLES  79 

Table  X  shows  with  sufficient  clearness  the  facts  concerning 
commercial  subjects.  Bookkeeping  was  the  only  subject  of  any 
particular  significance.  After  1890  the  beginning  of  the  movement 
to  give  the  commercial  subjects  an  important  place  in  high-school 
curricula  is  plainly  indicated. 

Two  facts  concerning  the  miscellaneous  subjects  are  revealed  by 
the  table:  (1)  the  wide  range  of  subjects;  (2)  the  relative  unimpor- 
tance of  them.  As  was  pointed  out  on  page  75,  mental  philosophy, 
moral  philosophy,  and  logic  constitute  the  early  group,  and  psy- 
chology, and  pedagogy  the  later  group  of  subjects  having  any 
importance.    Table  X  tells  the  story  in  detail. 


CHAPTER  VII 
VARIATIONS  IN  TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 

The  following  tables  show  the  variations  in  time  devoted  to  the 
several  fields  and  subjects.  Tables  XI-XVIII  show  the  wide 
variations  in  time  devoted  to  fields.  Table  XIX  shows  maxima, 
minima,  modes,  and  averages  in  time  devoted  to  the  fields,  and 
Tables  XX-XXVII  the  same  for  the  subjects. 

The  tables  below  indicate  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  each 
field.  It  is  not  possible  to  include  all  the  schools  listed  in  Tables 
A-H  because  some  courses  of  study  are  not  given  in  sufficient 
detail. 


TABLE  XI— 1860-65 


MATHEMATICS — 14  SCHOOLS 


Number 
of  Years 
4 


3.. 

2i. 
If- 


Number 
of  Schools 

....3 
....1 
....4 
....3 
....1 
....1 
....1 


SCIENCE — 14  SCHOOLS 
Niunber  Number 

of  Schools  of  Schools 

4f 1 

4i 2 

3| 2 

H 2 

3 3 

2| 1 

2i., 1 

2i 1 

2 1 


ENGLISH — 13  SCHOOLS 


Number 
of  Years 
34 

Number 
of  Schools 
1 

3 

2 

2% 

1 

21 

1 

2 

2 

1| 

1 

U 

1 

H 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

SOCIAL  STUDIES- 
Number 
of  Years 
2 

-13  SCHOOLS 
Number 
of  Schools 
2 

11 

1 

14 

2 

1 

5 

2 

1 

1 

^ 

2 

80 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


81 


LATIN — 11  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 1 

3 6 

2i 1 

2 3 


GERMAN — 5  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 1 

2 4 


GREEK — 8  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 2 

2 3 

If 2 

li 1 

1 1 

FRENCH — 4  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 1 

1 1 


COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS — 

8  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

1 1 

f 1 

i 6 


TABLE  XII- 

MATHEMATICS — IS  SCHOOLS 

Niunber  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

H 1 

4 2 

3i 1 

H 1 

3 4 

2f 1 

2 4 

li 1 


SCIENCE — 15  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5i 1 

4| 3 

3f 2 

3^ 1 

31 2 

3i 1 

3 3 

If 1 

H 1 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS — 
12  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

2f 1 

2 1 

If 1 

li 1 

1 2 

i 5 

i 1 

-1866-70 

ENGLISH — 15  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

H 1 

2i 1 

2 1 

If 4 

li 1 

li 3 

1 1 

f 2 

i 1 

SOCIAL  STUDIES — 15  SCHOOLS 
Nxmiber  Nimiber 

of  Years  of  Schools 

2i 2 

2 2 

If 3 

li 1 

If...: 3 

li 4 

1 3 

0 1 


82 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


LATIN — 16  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 6 

3f 1 

H 1 

3 3 

2f 1 

2 3 

1 1 

GERMAN — 10  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 3 

3 3 

2 3 

1 1 


GREEK — 11  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 2 

2 7 

li 1 

1 1 


FRENCH — 6  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 2 

3 2 

2 3 


COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS — 
12  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

1 3 

f 2 

i 1 

i 5 

i 1 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS — 
12  SCHOOLS 

Ntmiber  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

21 1 

H 1 

1 4 

1 1 

1 3 

i 1 

i 1 


TABLE  XIII— 1871-75 


MATHEMATICS — 12  SCHOOLS 


Number 
of  Years 

4i 

4 


3i. 
3.. 

2f. 
2i. 

2i. 
2.. 


Number 
of  Schools 
....1 
....1 
....1 
....1 
....2 
....1 
....1 
....3 
....1 


ENGLISH — 12  SCHOOLS 

Nimiber  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 1 

2f 1 

2 2 

If 3 

li 1 

li 1 

1 3 


SCIENCE — 12  SCHOOLS 

Number  Nimiber 

of  Years  of  Schools 

^ 1 

4 2 

3| 1 


SOCIAL  STUDIES — 12  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

fe2 2 

Ml 1 

li 4 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


83 


3.. 

2i. 
2.. 


LATIN- 
Number 
of  Years 

4 


-18  SCHOOLS 

Number 
of  Schools 

9 


GERMAN — 15  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 3 

3 4 

2 3 

1 5 


COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS* 


1 2 

1 1 

1 2 

2  9 

7 -' 


GREEK — 12  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 4 

2 4 

1 4 


FRENCH — 13  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 1 

3 3 

2 3 

1 5 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS* 


TABLE  XIV— 1876-80 


MATHEMATICS — 20  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4i 1 

3f 2 

H 1 

3^ 1 

H 1 

3 3 

2f 1 

2f 2 

2^ 3 

2i 2 

2 3 


ENGLISH — 20  SCHOOLS 


Number 

of  Years 

3.... 


2h 
2.. 

If. 
If- 
li. 

li- 
li- 
1.. 


Number 
of  Schools 

...3 
...1 
...2 
...4 
...1 
...2 
...1 
...1 
...1 
...4 


SCIENCE — 20  SCHOOLS 
Number  Nimiber 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5 2 

^ 1 


SOCIAL  STUDIES — 20  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3i 1 

3 1 


The  courses  are  so  few  in  this  field  which  makes  clear  the  time  devoted  to  commercial  and  miscel- 
laneous subjects  that  no  exact  data  are  possible. 


84 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


^ 2 

4 3 

H 1 

3^ 2 

3^ 1 

2^ 1 

3 1 

2| 3 

2i 1 

If 1 

1 1 


2^ 1 

2i 1 

2 1 

li 2 

li 5 

H 1 

1 3 

i 1 

f 2 


LATIN — 14  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 9 

3 3 

2f 1 

2i 1 

GREEK — 8  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 3 

2 4 

li 1 

COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS — 
10  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

2 1 

1 2 

i 1 

i 5 

i 1 


GERMAN — 12  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 7 

3 2 

2 2 

1 1 

FRENCH — 3  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 1 

3 1 

2 1 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS — 

10  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

li 1 

H 2 

1 1 

1 1 

i 5 


TABLE  XV— 1881-85 


MATHEMATICS — 24  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3f 2 

3f 1 

3i 1 

H 3 

3 7 

2i 1 

2i 4 

2i 1 


ENGLISH — 24  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5f 1 

5i 1 

4 2 

3^ 2 

H 1 

3 2 

2i 2 

2i 3 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


85 


2 4 

If 2 

li 1 

li 1 

1 2 


SCIENCE — 24  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5 2 

^ 1 

4 5 

3f 2 

3i 1 

3 3 

2% 1 

2f 1 

2| 2 

2i 2 

2 3 

1 1 


SOCIAL  STUDIES — 24  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schoob 

3^ 1 

2f 1 

2^ 2 

2i 3 

2 5 

If 3 

2i 3 

If 2 

1 3 

2  1 

^ 1 


LATIN — 23  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 9 

3f 1 

3^ 1 

3i 2 

3 7 

2f 1 

2 2 


FRENCH — 5  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 1 

2 4 

GREEK — 15  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 5 


GERMAN — 12  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 5 

3f 1 

3 2 

2 3 

1 1 


COMMERCIAL     SUBJECTS — 17     SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

li 2 

li 1 

1 2 

s  1 

^ ^ 

1  0 


MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS — 9    SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

1 3 

f 2 

i 1 

i 3 


86 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


TABLE  XVI- 

MATHEMATICS — 29  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5 1 

4 4 

3f 1 

H 1 

H 2 

3i 1 

H 1 

3... 7 

2t 7 

2i 1 

2i 1 

2i 1 

2 1 

SCIENCE — 29  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

6i .1 

5 2 

4| 1 

4i 5 

3f 3 

3^ 3 

H 2 

3 1 

2f 1 

2f 6 

2i 1 

2 3 


LATIN — 25  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 10 

3i 1 

3 8 

2i 1 

2 4 

1 1 

GERMAN — 14  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 6 

3 3 

2 4 

1 1 


-1886-1900 

ENGLISH — 28  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

6i 1 

4 4 

3f 2 

3i 1 

3i 3 

3 6 

2% 1 

2i 1 

2i 2 

2 4 

If 1 

H 2 


SOCIAL  STUDIES — 29  SCHOOLS 
Number  Nimiber 

of  Years  of  Schools 

^ 


3|. 
3f. 
3*. 
3i. 
21- 
2h 
2i. 


If- 

1 
7- 


GREEK — 4  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 2 

2i 1 

2 1 


FRENCH — 3  SCHOOLS 
Number                                      Number 
of  Years                                    of  Schools 
3 3 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


87 


COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS — 

18  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

If 1 

H 1 

li 1 

1 3 

f 3 

i 4 

i 5 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS — 
10  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

If 1 

1 1 

f 2 

i 1 

f 4 

i 1 


TABLE  XVII— 1891-95 


MATHEMATICS — 40  SCHOOLS 


Number 
of  Years 

4^.., 
4.... 


3i. 
3.. 


Number 
of  Schools 
1 

4 

1 

6 

4 

1 

....11 

3 

3 

5 

1 


ENGLISH 40  SCHOOLS 


Number 
of  Years 

6.... 

4i... 

4.... 

3^ 


^TG- 


•J  3 


2f. 
2i. 


If- 

If- 
1.. 


Number 
of  Schools 
....1 

....2 
....5 
....1 
....2 
....1 
....5 

...4 
....1 
....6 
....3 
....3 

...3 

...1 

...1 

...1 


SCIENCE 40  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5i 2 

5 1 

4f 1 

4f 3 

4f 1 

4 6 

3f 1 

3f 1 

H 4 

3^ 3 

3f 1 

3 4 


SOCIAL  STUDIES— 40  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5f 1 

4 2 

3f 4 

3 4 

2f 3 

2f 2 

2 8 

H 1 

If 3 

H 3 

If 2 

1 6 


88 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


2i 3 

2i 4 

2 1 

If 1 

li 3 


LATIN — 38  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 18 

3f 3 

H 1 

3 9 

2i 1 

2 5 

1 1 


FRENCH — 6  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 1 

2 1 

H 1 

1 3 


GREEK — 5  SCHOOLS 
Number  Nximber 

of  Years  of  Schools 

3 2 

2 3 

GERMAN — 22  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 4 

3 3 

2 11 

1 4 

SPANISH — 1  SCHOOL 
Number                                       Number 
of  Years                                    of  Schools 
4 1 


COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS — 
20  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5 1 

H 1 

3 1 

2 2 

1 5 

f 2 

i 4 

i 4 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS — 

15  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5 1 

2i 1 

1 3 

f 3 

i 6 

i 1 


TABLE  XVIII,  1896-1900 

MATHEMATICS 40  SCHOOLS  ENGLISH — 40  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number  Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools  of  Years  of  Schools 


4i. 
4.. 

^• 
3|. 
3|. 


5... 

4i.. 

4^- 
4... 


.1 
.1 
.1 

,10 

.1 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


89 


3f 2 

3^ 8 

H 1 

3 3 

2f 3 

2^ 1 

2| 6 

2 8 


3f 2 

3i 4 

H 1 

3 3 

2f 2 

2^ 3 

2i 1 

2 8 

If 1 

H 1 


SCIENCE — 40  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

5 1 

4| 1 

4 6 

3t 1 

3| 1 

3f 3 

3f 1 

3^ 5 

H 2 

3 9 

2f 2 

2i 1 

2 4 

H 1 

1 1 

i 1 


SOCIAL  STUDIES — 40  SCHOOLS 
Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 2 

3f 1 

3^ 1 

3i 1 

3i 1 

3 7 

2f 3 

2^ 2 

2i 4 

2 7 

If 1 

li 7 

H 1 

1 2 


LATIN — 39  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

H 1 

4 27 

3| 1 

H 1 

3 6 

2 3 


GREEK — 10  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 1 

3 1 

2 8 


GERMAN — 23  SCHOOLS 

Number  Nimiber 

of  Years  of  Schools 

4 9 

2  11 

H 1 

1 2 


FRENCH — 2  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 

2 4 


90 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS — 

28  SCHOOLS 

Number  Number 

of  Years  of  Schools 


2.. 
1.. 


.1 

..2 
..7 
,.2 
,10 
.2 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS — 
12  SCHOOLS 
Number                                         Number 
of  Years                                         of  Schools 
1 


72 


1. 


TABLE  XIX 

Summary  Showing  Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  Each  Field  for 

THE  Eight  Periods 


Subjects 


Mathematics — 

Maximum .  . . 

Minimum.  .  . 

Mode 

Average 

English — 

Maximum .  . . 

Minimum.  .  . 

Mode.  ... . . . 

Average 

Science — 

Maximum .  . . 

Minimum .  .  . 

Mode 

Average 

Social  Studies — 

Maximum .  . . 

Minimum.  .  . 

Mode 

Average 

Latin — 

Maximum . . . 
Minimum.  .  . 

Mode 

Average 


1860- 
65 


1-2-3 


't¥ 


4 
2 
3 
3i 


1866- 
70 


1 
2-3 


1 

s 

1  ^ 


1-U 


1    5 

4 
1 

4 


1871- 
75 


2 

2i 
3 

3 
1 


If 


3-4 
3 


H 


1876- 
80 


4i 
2 
2i-3 


3 

1 

1-2 

1| 

5 

1 

2f-4 


H 


1881- 
85 


1 

2 
li 

5 
1 

4 


4 
2 
4 
3f 


1886- 
90 


5 
2 

2|-3 


3 
3 

6i 

2 
93 


2i 


1891- 
95 


'T?y 


5i 
4 


1896- 
1900 


3i 


5 
4 


3i 


4 
1 

li- 
2-3 

2i 

2 
4 
3iir 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


91 


TABLE  XIX— Continued 

Summary  Showing  Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  Each  Field  for 

THE  Eight  Periods 


Subjects 

1860- 
65 

1866- 
70 

1  SPI- 
TS 

1876- 
80 

1881- 
85 

1886- 
90 

1891- 
95 

1896- 
1900 

Greek — 

Maximum 

2 
f 

2 
If 

4 
2 
2 
2f 

3 

1 

1-3 

2 

3 

1 

2 
2 

4 
1 

2-3-4 
2f 

4 
2 

2 

3 

1 

1-2-3 

2 

4 
1 
1 
2i 

4 

2 

1 

3 
li 

2 
2i 

4 

1 
4 
3i 

4 

2 

2-3-4 

3 

3 
3 
3 
3 

4 

1 
4 
3 

4 
2 
2 
2f 

3 
2 

3 
2^ 

4 

1 
4 
3 

3 
3 
3 
3 

3 

2 
2 
2f 

4 
1 
2 
2f 

4 
1 
1 
If 

4 
4 
4 
4 

16 
3 

2 

5 

5 
f 
i 

li 

5 
f 
i 

4 

Minimum 

2 

Mode 

2 

Average 

2t^ 
4 

German — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

1 

Mode 

2 

Average 

2f 
2 

French — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

2 

Mode 

2 

Average 

2 

Spanish — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 

Foreign  Language — 
Maximum 

13 

2 

2-3 

5 

1 
i 

i 
1 1 

2| 

2 

10 

1 
5-7 

5 

1 

i 

4 

1 

5 

TS 

2 

i 

1 
1 

13 

2 

4-6 

7 

f 
i 
i 

A 
i 

2 
2 

14 

3 
4-8- 
11-14 

8 

2 

1 

T 

1 

i 

i 

1 

■2" 

15 

2 

4 
6 

1 

11 
IT? 

1 

1 

4 

14 
2 

2 
6 

If 
i 
i 
f 

If 

1 

T 
f 

12f 
2 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 

4-6 
6 

Commercial  Subjects* — 
Maximum 

7 

Minimum 

74 

Mode 

Average 

Miscellaneous  Sub- 
jects*— 
Maximum 

Minimum 

'3 
1 

Mode 

Average 

•For  lists  of  subjects  see  Appendix,  Tables  A-H  inclusive. 


92 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


TABLE  XX,  1860-65 

Analysis  of  the  Courses  of  Study  of  Twenty  Schools*  Showing 

Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  each  SuBjECTf 


Subjects 


Number  of 
Schools 


Maximum 


Minimum 


Mode 


Average 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Survey  and  Navigation . . . 
English — 

Grammar  and  Analysis .  . . 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Word  Analysis 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology  § 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Studies — 

European  History** 

United  States  History .  . .  . 

Civicsft 

Political  Economics 

Foreign  LanguageXX — 

Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Mental  Philosophy 

Moral  Philosophy 

Logic 


17 
18 
19 
12 


17 
11 
18 


17 
18 
20 
17 
14 
9 
14 
14 

13 
3 

10 
4 


12 

11 

5 


f-1-1^ 


TTS 

8 

13 
15 

T!f 
13 


4 
IF 
3 

T 

4 
1  1 

ITT 


7 

T? 
3 
T 
11 
Tff 
1 1 
TS 

2 


6 


TT 


•For  the  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  by  each  school,  and  time  devoted  to  each  see 
Appendix,  Table  A. 

tSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  complete  list  see  Appendix,  Table  A. 

tNatural  philosophy  was  the  term  in  common  use. 

§lncludes  natural  history  and  biology. 

••Includes  ancient,  modem,  EngUsh  and  general  history,  and  similar  titles.    For  list  see  Appendix, 
Table  A. 

ttlncludes  civil  government.  United  States  constitution.  State  constitution,  science  of  government. 
See  ibid. 

XXStt  Table  XVIII. 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


93 


TABLE  XXI— 1866-70 

Analysis  of  the  Courses  of  Study  of  Twenty  Schools*  Showing 

Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  Each  SuBjECTf 


Subjects 


Number  of 
Schools 


Maximum 


Minimum 


Mode 


Average 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Survey  and  Navigation 
English — 

Grammar  and  Analysis 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography . . . 

Physics  J 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zo6logy§ 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Studies — 

European  History** . . . 

United  States  History. 

Civicsft 

Political  Economy .... 
Foreign  LanguageXt — 
Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Mental  Philosophy.  .  .  . 

Moral  Philosophy 


12 
20 
20 
14 
4 

14 

8 

15 

14 

15 
13 
20 
16 
15 
10 
12 
18 

18 
4 

12 
6 


12 

15 
9 


1 

•Its- 


7 
1  6 

TT 
1  1 

3 


T? 


7 

TT 

2 

2 

3 

■J 

1 

1 

3 

ir 

1     2 

2 

3    3 

z 

2 

8 

3 

7 

2 

9 

¥ 

T¥ 

1 

17 

7 

ws 

T5 


9 
4 

s 

1 
¥ 

7 

T5 


7 


TS 


*For  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  by  each  school,  and  time  devoted  to  each  see  Appendix, 
Table  B. 

tSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  complete  list  see  Appendix,  Table  A. 

JNatural  philosophy  was  the  term  in  common  use. 

§Including  natural  history  and  biology. 

•'Includes  ancient,  modem,  English,  and  general  history,  and  similar  titles. 

ttlncludes  civil  government,  United  States  Constitution,  State  Constitution,  science  of  government. 

ttSee  Table  XVIII. 


94 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


TABLE  XXII— 1871-75 
Analysis  of  the  Courses  of  Study  of  Twenty  Schools*  Showing 
Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  Each  SuBjECTf 


Subjects 


Number  of 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Schools 

12 

1 

1 
3 

i 

20 

1§ 

i 

1 

20 

2 

I 

1 

15 

1 

1 

1 
3 

13 

2 

1 

3 

M 

12 

2 

1 
3 

I 

17 

'i 

I 

f 

20 

If 

h 

2 

17 

f 

* 

1 

3 

15 

1 
3 

i 

19 

1 

1 
3 

2 

3 

18 

1 

I 

2 
3 

17 

2 
3 

* 

1 
3 

12 

f 

1 
3 

1 
3 

17 

2 
1 

1 
3 

i 

16 

i 

1 

i 

19 

2 

I 

2 
3 

5 

1 

1 
3 

2 
3 

14 

1 

1 
3 

i 

5 

2 

1 

1 

3 

3 

3 

10 

2 
3 

i 

1 
3 

10 

f 

I 

f 

6 

1 

1 

1 

s 

3 

3 

Average 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar  and  Analysis 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography. . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology  § 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Studies — 

European  History**  .  .  , 

United  States  History . 

Civicsft 

Political  Economy .... 
Foreign  LanguageXt — 
Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Mental  Philosophy 

Moral  Philosophy 


5 


11 


7 

TS 

17 

^ir 

7 

7 
5 

TS 

7 

T8 

6 

Tsr 

4 


12 

TS 

2 


a 
TS 


7 


*For  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  by  each  school,  and  time  devoted  to  each  see  Appen- 
dix, Table  C. 

fSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  complete  list  see  Appendix,  Table  A. 

JNatural  philosophy  was  the  term  in  common  use. 

Ilncludes  natural  history  and  biology. 

"Includes  ancient,  modem,  English,  and  general  history,  and  similar  titles.  For  list  see  Appendix, 
Table  C. 

ttlncludes  Civil  Government,  United  States  Constitution,  State  Constitution,  science  of  govern- 
ment.   For  list  see  ibid. 

ttSee  Table  XVIII. 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


95 


TABLE  XXIII— 1876-80 

Analysis  of  the  Courses  of  Study  of  Twenty  Schools*  Showing 

Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  Each  SuBjECTf 


Subjects 


Number  of 
Schools 


Maximum 


Minimum 

Mode 

2 

1 

3 

2 

^ 

1 

h 

1 

1 

1     1 

s 

3-^ 

^ 

1 

X 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

^ 

3 

I 

1 

1 

112 

J 

3-5-3 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 
3 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

1 

^ 

3 

1 

1 

3 

2 

1 

1 

3 

3 

^ 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

1 

1 

4 

3 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

S 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

Average 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar  and  Analysis 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography. . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zo6logy§ 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Science — 

European  History**. . . 

United  States  History. 

Civicsft 

Political  Economy .... 
Foreign  LanguageXX — 
Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Mental  Philosophy 

Moral  Philosophy .... 


14 
20 
20 
11 

9 
12 
17 
16 

19 
13 
19 
13 
17 
14 
10 
13 

20 
5 

15 
3 


10 

8 
4 


A3 

2| 

2 
2 
3 

1 
1 
2 


1  1 


2 
3 

7 

1 1 


h 

25 

1 1 

8 
TT 

1 

To 
1  7 
T¥ 


iTir 


7 

7 

rar 


1 1 


7 

13 


•For  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  by  each  school,  and  time  devoted  to  each.  Sec 
Appendix,  Table  D. 

tSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  complete  list,  see  ibid. 

JNatural  philosophy  was  the  term  in  common  use. 

§Includes  natural  history  and  biology. 

"Includes  ancient,  modem,  English,  and  general  history,  and  similar  titles.  For  list,  see  Appendix, 
Table  D. 

ttlncludes  civil  government.  United  States  Constitution,  State  Constitution,  science  of  government. 

«See  Table  XVIII. 


96 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


TABLE  XXIV— 1881-85 
Analysis  of  the  Courses  of  Study  of  Twenty-Five  Schools*  Show- 
ing Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  Each  Subjectj 


Subjects 


Number  of 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Schools 

22 

2 

1 
3 

M 

25 

2 

1 

1 

25 

li 

1 
3 

1 

10 

1 

\ 

1 

3   - 

17 

11 

h 

2 
3 

8 

If 

I 

H 

21 

1 

\ 

1 

3 

23 

2 

2 

3 

1 

23 

1 

1 
3 

1 

17 

1 

\ 

1    1 

3-^ 

25 

1 

\ 

2 
3 

20 

1 

1 
3 

2 
3 

18 

5 

\ 

1 

14 

2 

3 

1 
3 

\ 

14 

2 
3 

1 
3 

1     1 

3-^ 

12 

t 

i 

14 

25 

If 

2 

3 

1 

7 

1 
3 

1 
1 

21 

1 

1 
3 

1 

3 

8 

h 

1 
3 

1 
3 

17 

1 

1 
3 

1 
3 

6 

1 

1 
3 

1-1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

3 

Average 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra  

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar  and  Analysis . 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography. . . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology  § 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Studies — 

European  History**. . . . 

United  States  History.  . 

Civicsft 

Political  Economy 

Foreign  LanguageXt — 
Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Mental  Philosophy 

Moral  Philosophy 


li 

4 
4 


1 

1 

2 

3. 

4 
1  1 
TS 

7 

6 

TS 
s 


11 

h 

5 


1 1 

TS 

1 
"5 


*For  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  by  each  school  ,and  time  devoted  to  each  see  Appen- 
dix, Table  E. 

tSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  complete  list  see  ibid. 

tNatural  philosophy  was  the  term  in  common  use. 

§Includes  natural  history  and  biology. 

"Includes  ancient,  modern,  English,  and  general  history,  and  similar  titles.  For  list  see  Appendix, 
Table  E. 

ttlncludes  Civil  government,  United  States  Constitution,  State  Constitution,  science  of  government. 

ttSee  Table  XVIII. 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


97 


TABLE  XXV— 1886-90 

Analysis  of  the  Courses  of  Study  of  Thirty  Schools*  Showing 

Time  in  Years  Devoted  to  Each  Subject! 


Subjects 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar  and  Analysis. . 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology! 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Studies — 

European  History** 

United  States  History .  .  . 

Civicsft 

Political  Economy 

Foreign  LanguageXX — 
Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Mental  Philosophy 

Moral  Philosophy 

Pedagogy 


Number  of 
Schools 


19 
30 
30 
11 

22 
13 
25 
26 

26 
27 
30 
18 
29 
18 
19 
18 

25 
16 
28 
11 


24 

6 

3 

7 


Maximum 


2 

2 

2 
3 


2h 


1^ 


Minimum 


Mode 


2 
3 

1| 


Average 


5 


0 
5 

■s 

15 

1^ 


14- 
1ST 

7 

TS 

ft 
1 1 

1 

2 

8 
17 

5 
ITS 


^ 

T^ 


^ 


13 

JL 
3 
5 

T 


•For  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  by  each  school,  and  time  devoted  to  each  see  Appen- 
dix, Table  F. 

fSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  list  see  ibid. 

JNatural  philosophy  a  term  also  used. 

§Includes  natural  history. 

**Includes  ancient,  modern,  English,  and  general  history,  and  similar  titles.  For  list  see  Appendix, 
Table  F. 

tflncludes  civil  government.  United  States  Constitution,  State  Constitution,  science  of  government. 

ttSee  Table  XVIII. 


98 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


TABLE  XXVI— 1891-95 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  COURSES  OF  StUDY  OF  FORTY  SCHOOLS*  SHOWING  TiME  IN 

Years  Devoted  to  Each  SuBjECTf 


Subjects 


Number  of 
Schools 


Maximum 


Minimum 


Mode 


Average 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography. . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology! 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Studies — 

European  History**.. 

United  States  History 

Civicsft 

Political  Economy .  . . 
Foreign  LanguageXt — 
Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Commercial  Law.  .  .  . 
Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Psychology*** 

Pedagogy 


28 

40 

40 

8 

13 
20 
26 
35 

32 
29 
40 
29 
33 
17 
19 
20 

38 
IS 
34 
11 


19 

5 


1 

1^ 
1 

3^ 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

1^ 
1 

2 
3 

3 
1 
1 
1 


1 
1| 


1    1 

3-2 


H 
1 

3 


1 

1 

1    2 

3-3 


11 

in 


^ 


li 


I 


H 


•For  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  by  each  school,  and  time  devoted  to  each  see  Appen- 
dix, Table  G. 

tSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  list  see  ibid. 

{Natural  philosophy  a  term  also  used. 

§Includes  biology. 

**Includes  ancient,  modem,  English  and  general  history,  and  similar  titles.  For  list,  see  Appendix, 
Table  G. 

tt Includes  civil  government.  United  States  and  state  constitution. 

JtSee  Table  XVIII. 

•"•Includes  mental  philosophy. 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


99 


TABLE  XXVII— 1896-1900 

Analysis  of  the  Courses  of  Study  of  Forty  Schools*  Showing  Time 

IN  Years  Devoted  to  Each  Subject! 


Subjects 


Number  of 
Schools 


Maximum 


Minimum 

Mode 

1 

M 

5 

1 

i§ 

i 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 
3 

1-1 

1 

i-2 

1 

1 

3 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 
3 

h 

1 

1 

h 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

^ 

^ 

1 

1 

3 

5 

1 

1 

s 

1 

h 

1 

1 

1 

3 

^ 

1 
3 

h 

1 

1 

1 

"S 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

1 

3 

^ 

1 

1 

3 

3 

Average 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra  

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

EnglishX — 

Grammar 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical  Geography. . 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology! 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social  Studies — 

European  History**. . 

United  States  History 

Civicsft 

Political  Economy .  . . 
Foreign  LanguageXX — 
Commercial  Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Commercial  Law.  .  .  . 
Miscellaneous  Subjects — 

Psychology 

Pedagogy 


26 

40 

40 

9 

14 
17 
25 
31 

28 
30 
38 
26 
33 
22 
9 
11 

26 
18 
30 
16 


29 
9 

7 
7 


1 
2 

^3 

1 

1 


2 
1 
3 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2 

3 

1 
1 


7 

TT 
1^ 

1 

7 

TT 

h 


TT 


ih 


11 
TT 

1 
5 


•For  names  of  towns  and  cities,  subjects  offered  in  each  school,  and  time  devoted  to  each  see  Appen- 
dix, Table  H. 

tSubjects  infrequently  offered  are  not  given  in  this  table.    For  list  see  ibid. 

tSeveral  schools  offered  English  without  designating  the  subjects. 

{Includes  biology. 

"Includes  ancient,  modem,  English  and  general  history. 

tt Includes  civil  government. 

«See  Table  XVIH. 


100         THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


1.      LACK  OF  UNIFORMITY  IN  TIME 

Tables  XI-XVIII  show  the  great  lack  of  uniformity  in  time 
devoted  to  the  various  fields.  It  will  be  observed,  for  example, 
from  page  80,  that  out  of  fourteen  schools  offering  mathematics 
there  were  seven  different  units  of  time  devoted  to  this  field.  In 
English  there  were  thirteen  schools  and  ten  different  units,  and 
in  science,  fourteen  schools  and  nine  different  units.  This  lack  of 
uniformity  is  found  to  prevail  throughout  the  forty  years,  although 
the  tendency  to  standardize  some  fields  is  made  evident  by  decrease 
in  number  of  units  and  also  agreement  in  a  comparatively  large 
number  of  schools.  For  example,  in  1891-95,  out  of  forty  schools 
offering  mathematics  [p.  87]  there  are  only  twelve  units  as  com- 
pared with  fourteen  schools  and  seven  different  units  in  1860-65. 
The  tendency  to  uniformity  is  also  shown  by  the  fact  that  three 
units  of  time  include  twenty-two  of  these  same  schools.  The  same 
is  true  of  English.  In  1860-65,  out  of  thirteen  schools  there  were 
ten  different  units  of  time,  while  in  1896-1900,  with  forty  schools 
there  were  but  fifteen  units.  As  in  the  case  of  mathematics,  three 
of  these  units  included  twenty  schools.  Comparing  pages  80  and 
89  will  show  the  same  tendency  in  both  science  and  the  social 
studies  although  not  in  the  same  degree  as  in  mathematics  and 
English. 

These  tables,  however,  very  clearly  show  the  lack  of  standardiza- 
tion of  high-school  curricula  from  the  standpoint  of  time  devoted  to 
each  field  even  at  the  close  of  the  century. 

Table  XIX  shows  the  maximum,  minimum,  mode,  and  averages 
of  time  devoted  to  each  field  for  the  several  periods  and  Tables 
XX-XXVII  indicate  the  same  for  each  subject  in  the  different 
fields. 

2.      MAXIMUM,  MINIMUM,  MODE,  AND  AVERAGE  TIME 
DEVOTED  TO  SUBJECTS  AND  FIELDS 

MATHEMATICS 

The  average  time  devoted  to  mathematics  remained  practically 
constant  and  was  approximately  three  years.  The  highest  maxi- 
mum was  five  and  the  lowest  three  and  two-thirds.  The  minimum 
for  1860-70  was  one  year  and  thereafter  two  years.  Three  years 
was  the  most  frequent  mode. 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS  101 

Arithmetic. — The  average  time  devoted  to  this  subject  never 
reached  one  year,  the  highest  being  eight-ninths  and  the  lowest 
five-twelfths.  The  average  time  increased  two-thirteenths  for  the 
entire  period.  The  maximum  was  as  high  as  two  years,  one  year 
being  the  lowest  and  most  frequent.  One-third  was  constant  as  a 
minimum.  The  mode  was  as  high  as  one  year,  one-third  being  the 
most  frequent. 

Algebra. — The  average  except  for  1860-65  was  above  one  year. 
There  was  a  gradual  increase  and  at  the  close  the  average  time  was 
approximately  one  and  one-half.  The  lowest  maximum  was  one 
and  two-thirds,  the  highest  two  and  one-half,  and  two  years  most 
frequent.  The  lowest  minimum  was  one-half,  the  highest  and 
most  frequent  being  one.  The  most  frequent  mode  was  one,  it 
being  one  and  one-half  at  the  close. 

Geometry. — Average  time  was  approximately  one  year,  increas- 
ing from  thirteen-sixteenths  to  one  and  one-sixth.  Lowest  maxi- 
mum was  one  year,  two  years  being  the  highest  and  most  frequent. 
The  lowest  minimum  was  one-third,  two-thirds  being  the  highest 
and  most  frequent.    The  mode  remained  one  year  throughout. 

Trigonometry. — The  average  time  ranges  from  one-third  to  one- 
half  year.  Lowest  maximum  was  one-half,  the  highest  being  one 
year  and  two-thirds  the  most  frequent.  Lowest  minimum  was 
one-fourth,  one-third  being  the  highest,  and  most  frequent.  Prac- 
tically no  change  occurred  in  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the 
subject. 

Surveying  and  navigation  was  negligible  after  1870.  It  was  a 
short-time  subject,  the  average  time  devoted  to  it  being  between 
one-third  and  one-half  year. 


The  average  time  devoted  to  this  field  ranged  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  approximately  three  years  at  the  close.  Comparing  the 
first  and  last  period,  the  average  time  increased  approximately 
one  year.  The  lowest  maximum  was  three  and  the  highest  six  and 
one-third.  It  is  very  probable  that  maxima  after  1880  are  above 
the  amount  actually  offered  on  account  of  confusion  in  terminology. 
The  lowest  minimum  was  one-third,  the  highest  one  and  one-half, 
one  year  being  the  most  frequent.  There  is  considerable  confusion 
concerning  mode,  it  being  between  one  and  two  years  before  1880, 
and  between  two  and  four  years  thereafter. 


102  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Grammar.^ — ^The  average  time  was  below  one  year,  the  highest 
being  eight-ninths  in  1881-85,  and  the  lowest  six-elevenths  in 
1891-95.  The  lowest  maximum  was  one,  the  highest  two,  and 
the  most  frequent  one  and  one-third.  The  minimum  was  one- 
third  throughout  except  for  the  period  1881-85  when  it  was  one- 
half.  Considerable  confusion  exists  as  to  the  mode,  the  lowest  and 
most  frequent  being  one-third  and  the  highest  one  year.  Grammar 
declined  in  importance  both  absolutely  and  also  relatively  as  com- 
pared with  other  subjects  in  its  field. 

Composition^ — ^Average  time  approximately  one  year  at  the 
beginning  and  one  year  at  the  close.  The  latter  was  the  highest 
average,  the  lowest  being  a  trifle  above  one-third,  1866-70.  The 
lowest  maximum  was  one-half  and  the  highest  two  years.  The 
minimum  was  one-third  throughout.  The  lowest  and  most  frequent 
mode  was  one-third  and  the  highest  two-thirds.  On  the  whole  there 
was  an  increase  in  the  time  devoted  to  the  subject.^ 

Rhetoric. — Average  time  slightly  above  one-half,  the  lowest 
and  highest  averages  being  one-third  and  two-thirds  respectively. 
The  lowest  maximum  was  one-half,  the  highest  and  most  frequent 
being  one  year.  The  minimum  was  one-third  throughout.  The 
lowest  and  most  frequent  mode  was  one- third,  the  highest  being 
two-thirds.  From  the  opening  to  the  close  there  was  an  increase  of 
time  of  approximately  one-fifth  year.* 

Literature^ — ^The  average  time  devoted  to  this  subject  increased 
from  approximately  one-half  at  the  beginning  to  one  and  one-half 
at  the  close.  The  lowest  maximum  was  two-thirds,  the  highest 
three  and  one-half  years,  and  one  and  one-half,  two,  and  three  and 
one-half  were  equal  in  point  of  frequency.  The  lowest  and  most 
frequent  minimum  was  one-third  and  two-thirds  was  the  highest. 
The  lowest  mode  was  two-thirds,  the  highest  and  most  frequent 
being  one  year.  The  increases  in  amount  of  time  devoted  to  English 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  increase  in  literature. 

SCIENCE 

The  average  time  devoted  to  science  remained  practically 
unchanged  comparing  1860  and  1900.     There  was  more  or  less 

1  The  subjects  entitled  grammar,  analysis,  sentence  analysis,  and  the  like  are  grouped  since  it  is  very 
apparent  that  the  various  titles  are  used  to  designate  the  same  general  type  of  subject-matter. 

2  Computations  are  only  approximately  correct,  since  the  time  devoted  to  the  subject  is  not  clearly 
indicated,  particularly  in  the  earlier  years. 

»  The  computations  in  this  subject  like  others  in  its  field  are  only  approximately  correct  on  account 
of  the  introduction  of  the  general  term  "English"  about  1880. 

*Ibid. 

*  The  term  was  loosely  used  and  included  English  literature,  American  literature,  classics,  history  of 
literature,  reading,  etc. 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS  103 

fluctuation  from  period  to  period  which  was  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  same  schools  do  not  furnish  data  for  all  the  tables 
rather  than  to  any  general  tendency.  The  maximum  also  remains 
constant  except  for  fluctuations  referred  to  above.  The  fluctuations 
are  greater  in  both  minimum  and  mode  than  in  either  the  average 
or  maximum.  The  minimum  decreases  slightly  for  the  whole  period 
while  the  mode  increases  two-thirds  of  a  year.  The  maximum  held 
closely  around  five  years  except  for  one  period  1886-90  when  it  was 
six  and  one-half.  The  average  was  never  below  three  years  or 
above  three  and  one-half.  The  highest  minimum  was  two  years,  the 
lowest  was  one  year  and  this  was  also  the  most  frequent.  The 
highest  and  most  frequent  mode  was  four  years  and  the  lowest 
two  and  one-third. 

Physiology. — ^The  average  time  devoted  to  this  subject  remained 
approximately  one-half  year  to  the  close.  The  maximum  increased 
from  two-thirds  to  one  year  while  the  minimum,  one-third,  remained 
unchanged.  The  mode  was  one-third  in  1860  and  one-half  after 
1880.  Physical  geography  was  also  a  short- time  subject  and  its 
history  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  physiology. 

Physics. — ^This  was  one  of  the  longer-time  science  subjects  and 
the  average  increased  approximately  from  three-fourths  of  a  year 
to  one  year.  The  maximum  remained  one  year  while  the  mode 
increased  from  two-thirds  of  a  year  to  one  year.  The  minimum 
increased  from  one-third  of  a  year  to  one-half  year. 

Chemistry. — ^The  average  was  the  same  in  1860  as  that  of  physics 
and  this  had  increased  only  by  a  small  fraction  in  1900.  The 
subject  was  identical  with  physics  as  to  maximum,  minimum,  and 
mode. 

Botany. — ^The  average  time  remained  one-half  year  and  the  mode 
decreased  slightly.  The  maximum  increase  from  two-thirds  of  a 
year  to  one  year  and  the  minimum  remains  the  same.  Zoology  gains 
slightly  in  average  time  and  the  minimum  remains  the  same.  The 
maximum  increases  from  two-thirds  of  a  year  to  one  year  and  the 
mode  increased  from  one-third  of  a  year  to  one-half. 

Geology. — This  subject  remained  unchanged  except  for  negligible 
fractions.  Astronomy  shows  a  slight  decrease  in  time  as  to  average 
and  maximum,  the  minimum  remains  the  same  and  the  mode 
increases  from  one-third  to  one-half  year. 

THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

The  increase  in  average  time  devoted  to  this  field  amounts  to  a 
little  less  than  one  year.    This  was  slightly  less  than  the  gain  in  the 


104  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

case  of  English.  The  maximum  increased  two  years,  the  mode  from 
one  year  to  one  and  one-half  and  the  minimum  from  one-third  of  a 
year  to  one  year.  There  was  little  fluctuation  in  either  the  average 
or  the  maximum,  the  increase  on  the  whole  being  steady  and  unin- 
terrupted. This  was  not  true  of  the  minimum  and  the  mode, 
although  the  fluctuations  were  less  pronounced  in  the  latter  than  in 
the  former. 

European  history} — The  gain  in  time  devoted  to  the  social 
studies  was  largely  due  to  increase  in  time  given  to  European  his- 
tory. The  gain  in  average  time  was  seven-tenths  of  a  year  and  the 
maximum  increased  from  one  and  one-half  to  three  years.  The 
mode  increased  from  two-thirds  of  a  year  to  one  year  and  the 
minimum  decreased  from  two-thirds  to  one-half  year.  There  were 
some  fluctuations,  but  on  the  whole  the  increase  in  time  particularly 
as  to  average  and  maximum  was  uninterrupted. 

United  States  history. — Except  for  negligible  fractions  as  to 
average  and  mode,  no  change  occurred  in  amount  of  time  devoted 
to  this  subject.  Civics  shows  an  increase  of  two-ninths  of  a  year  in 
average  time  and  one-third  in  maximum.  The  minimum  remains 
one-third  and  the  mode  changes  from  one-third  to  one-half  year. 
Political  economy  shows  no  change  in  minimum  or  mode  each 
remaining  one-third  of  a  year.  The  average  increased  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  year  and  the  maximum  from  one-third  to  one  year. 

FOREIGN  LANGUAGE 

This  field  presents  considerable  confusion.  One  reason  for  this  is 
that  details  for  foreign  language  are  not  given  in  some  of  the  earlier 
courses  of  study.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  modern  languages. 
For  example,  the  mark  thus,  x,  in  Table  B  shows  that  the  schools 
offered  Greek,  German,  French,  or  all  of  these  languages,  but  that 
no  data  are  given  indicating  whether  one,  two,  or  more  years  were 
devoted  to  each.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  maximum  was  thirteen 
years  during  the  period  1860-65  and  again  during  1871-75  and  only 
ten  years  from  1866-70.  It  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  maxi- 
mum for  foreign  language  does  not  suffer  such  violent  fluctuations 
and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  maximum  for  the  period  as  a  whole 
fluctuated  to  the  extent  indicated. 

\  If  one  takes  into  account  all  the  data,  the  conclusion  that  there 
was  not  much  change  in  the  amount  of  time  seems  justified.    The 

1  See  footnotes  to  Tables  XX-XXVIL 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS  105 

average  time  devoted  to  Latin  was  approximately  three  and 
one-fourth  years.  The  maximum  was  four  years  except  in  the  case 
of  one  school  which  devoted  four  and  one-third  years  to  the  subject 
in  1900.  One  and  two  years  constitute  with  equal  frequency  the 
minimum  and  four  years  the  most  frequent  mode. 

Greek  was  practically  negligible  as  a  high-school  subject  partic- 
ularly after  1880.  The  table  indicates  increase  in  average,  maxi- 
mum, and  minimum  time  devoted  to  the  subject,  while  the  mode 
remains  unchanged  except  for  two  periods  when  it  increases  from 
two  to  three  years. 

The  maximum  for  German  of  four  years  was  constant  except  for 
the  period  1866-70  when  it  was  three  years.  Two  years  was  the 
most  frequent  mode,  and  the  minimum  ranged  from  two-thirds  of  a 
year  to  two  years  with  one  year  the  most  frequent.  The  average 
ranged  from  two  and  one-third  to  three  years  and  was  two  and 
seven-tenths  at  the  close.  The  average  time  devoted  to  French  was 
lowest  at  one  and  one-half  years,  highest  at  three  years,  and  was  two 
years  at  the  close.  The  maximum  was  three  years  during  the  first 
period,  two  years  at  the  close,  and  four  years  was  the  most  frequent. 
The  mode  ranged  from  one  to  three  years,  being  two  years  at  the 
close  and  this  was  the  most  frequent.  The  average  was  two  years  at 
the  close.  One  and  two  years  were  equally  frequent  as  the  mini- 
mum. 

COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS 

This  field  received  very  little  attention  before  1890,  the  maxi- 
mum time  being  less  than  two  years  except  for  one  period  (two  years, 
1876-80)  until  that  date.  After  that  time  the  maximum  increased 
rapidly  and  was  seven  years  at  the  close.  This  increase  was  due 
to  the  introduction  of  stenography  and  typewriting.  The  average 
was  less  than  one  year  until  the  date  mentioned  above,  the  lowest 
being  one-third  and  the  highest  was  one  and  three-sevenths  years  at 
the  close.  The  most  frequent  minimum  was  one-third  and  the  mode 
ranged  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  of  a  year,  being  one-half  at  the 
close. 

THE  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS 

These  subjects  fall  into  two  groups.  The  first  group  consisted 
of  mental  philosophy,  moral  philosophy,  logic.  Christian  evidences, 
and  the  like.  They  were  all  short-time  subjects  and  declined  in 
importance  resulting  in  less  time  being  devoted  to  the  field.  The 
maximum  decreased  from  two  and  two-thirds  to  one  year  in  1885 


106  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

and  the  average  also  decreased  during  the  same  time  from  one  and 
one-eighth  to  two-thirds  of  a  year.  The  manual  training  group 
then  came  in  and  the  maximum  was  three  years  in  1885-90  and 
seven  years  at  the  close.  The  average,  however,  is  still  low,  approxi- 
mately one  year,  due  to  pedagogy  and  psychology  which  were 
short-time  subjects. 

3.      REQUIRED  SUBJECTS  AND  ELECTIVES 

Constants  and  variables  have  already  been  discussed  [pp.  75-9], 
and  it  was  there  shown  that  mathematics,  English,  and  the  social 
studies  (after  1870)  were  offered  by  all  the  schools.  This  does  not 
mean,  of  course,  that  the  subjects  in  these  fields  were  required  of  all 
the  students,  since  the  majority  of  the  schools  included  in  this 
study,  offered  opportunity  for  election. 

No  subject  seems  to  have  been  universally  required  although 
some  were  practically  so.  Algebra  and  geometry  were  sometimes 
not  required  in  commercial  courses^  but  this  was  not  the  rule  partic- 
ularly in  three-  and  four-year  courses.^  English  was  not  required  in 
some  of  the  earlier  classical  courses,  but  the  later  practice  was  to 
require  something  in  this  field  of  all  students.  In  science,  the  rule 
was  to  require  physics  of  all  students  although  exceptions  are  found. ^ 
In  the  field  of  social  studies  there  seems  to  have  been  no  one  subject 
universally  required  of  all  students. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  elective  subjects  included  a 
wide  range,  there  being  no  field  which  did  not  furnish  one  or  more. 
As  has  been  pointed  out,  algebra  and  geometry,  with  few  exceptions, 
were  required  while  trigonometry  was  more  frequently  an  elective. 
Grammar  and  composition,  if  offered,  were  almost  invariably  re- 
quired, while  rhetoric  and  literature  were  frequently  elective.  In 
science,  as  has  been  said,  physics  was  usually  required.  Of  the 
other  sciences,  botany,  physical  geography,  and  physiology  were 
relatively  less  frequently  elective  than  geology,  chemistry,  astron- 
omy, and  zoology.  Of  the  latter  group,  zoology  seems  to  have 
been  more  frequently  elective  than  the  other  three. 

Of  the  social  studies.  United  States  history  and  European  his- 
tory were  less  frequently  elective  than  civics  and  political  economy. 
The  latter  was  relatively  the  most  frequently  elective. 

»  Cf.  p.  39. 

«  Cf.  32. 

•  Cf.  20,  21,  23. 


TIME  DEVOTED  TO  FIELDS  AND  SUBJECTS  107 

If  any  foreign  language  was  required,  it  was  almost  invariably 
Latin.  When  two  or  more  foreign  languages  were  offered  it  was 
the  common  practice  to  permit  election. 

Commercial  subjects  were  usually  elective  and  the  same  was 
true  of  pedagogy  and  psychology. 

There  seems  to  have  been  no  generally  accepted  criteria  for 
determining  required  subjects  and  electives.  College  entrance 
requirements,  of  course,  determined  the  subjects  required  in 
preparatory  courses  and  these  included  foreign  language  and 
"such  other  subjects  as  are  requisite  to  prepare  young  men  for  the 
university."^  In  referring  to  those  who  wished  to  prepare  for 
college  the  following  statement  is  found  in  the  Chicago  report: 
"Those  in  preparation  for  college  who  desire  it  can  omit  the  English 
branches,  except  the  requisite  mathematics,  and  complete  the 
course  in  three  years.  "^  English  branches  as  here  used  meant  sub- 
jects other  than  ancient  languages.  As  entrance  requirements 
changed  required  subjects  changed.  For  example,  when  little  or  no 
English  was  required  for  entrance,  the  subjects  in  this  field  were 
offered  in  non-preparatory  courses  in  place  of  the  ancient  languages. 
As  time  went  on,  more  English  work  was  required  in  all  courses 
irrespective  of  entrance  requirements.  The  subjects  in  this  field, 
however,  continued  to  be  elective  with  foreign  language  to  the  close. 
The  science  subjects  were  also  substitutes  for  foreign  language,  the 
election  here  being  largely  on  the  same  basis  as  was  the  case  in 
English. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  period  covered  by  Parts  I  and  II,  it  is 
clear  that  the  line  of  cleavage  was  between  foreign  language,  partic- 
ularly ancient  language,  and  the  so-called  "English  studies."  The 
courses  given  on  pages  20  and  21  show  this  distinction.  Except  for 
this,  however,  there  was  no  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  substitu- 
tions. As  time  went  on,  and  courses  were  multiplied,  the  confusion 
concerning  electives  increased.  This  will  be  seen  by  a  study  of 
electives  provided  in  the  courses  given  on  pages  20  to  42.  Latin  and 
Greek  could  be  substituted  for  "other  courses"  by  those  preparing 
for  college.^  Latin  was  an  elective  with  commercial  subjects.*  His- 
tory and  German  were  substitutes  for  Latin,*  and  "English  studies" 

1  Cf.  p.  20. 
*  Cf .  p.  26. 
'  Cf.  pp.  21,  22. 
<  Cf .  p.  22. 
'  Cf.  p.  29. 


108  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

for  German  and  Greek.^  Pedagogy  was  an  elective  for  German  and 
Latin,  and  Greek  for  bookkeeping,  civics,  and  science.^ 

Two  subjects  were  required  by  St.  Louis^  from  the  following: 
Latin  or  German  or  French;  zoology  or  geology,  or  Greek  or 
Chemistry  or  mental  philosophy  or  trigonometry.  German  or 
French  were  elective  for  English  history,  political  science,  mental 
science,  and  astronomy.'*  In  the  German-English  course,  German 
was  a  substitute  for  general  history,  English  history,  civil  govern- 
ment, and  political  economy.^  German  and  French  were  also 
substitutes  for  English  literature  and  physiology.^  The  following 
substitutes  were  allowed  for  four  years  of  Latin  or  German :  compo- 
sition, botany,  physical  geography,  civil  government,  rhetoric, 
literature,  United  States  history.^  A  comparatively  wide  range  of 
electives  is  shown,  but  no  information  is  given  concerning  what  plan 
was  used  in  selection. 

It  is  clear  as  shown  on  pages  20  to  42  that  outside  of  college 
preparatory  curricula,  no  uniformity  existed  concerning  content  or 
organization  of  courses.  The  same  was  true  of  required  subjects 
and  electives. 

I  Cf.  p.  26. 
«  Cf.  p.  29. 
»  Cf.  p.  29. 

*  Cf.  pp.  26,  29,  30,  33. 
'  Cf.  p.  29. 

•  Cf.  p.  30. 
»  Cf.  p.  31. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

INFLUENCE  OF  SIZE  AND  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS 

1.      LARGE  AND  SMALL  SCHOOLS 

The  high  schools  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns,  as  would  be 
expected,  offered  a  wider  range  of  subjects  than  did  the  schools  in 
the  smaller  towns,  and  certain  subjects  are  more  frequently  found  in 
the  curricula  of  these  schools.  The  modern  languages  were  more 
frequently  taught  in  the  larger  schools  and  this  was  particularly 
true  of  French.  Trigonometry,  chemistry,  and  geology  were  less 
frequently  offered  by  the  small  schools.  Literature  was  a  large- 
school  subject  in  the  earlier  years,  and  the  amount  of  time  devoted 
to  it  was  usually  less  in  the  small  schools  after  it  had  become  a 
constant  in  all  the  schools.  Grammar  seems  to  have  been  offered 
more  frequently  in  the  smaller  schools,  while  the  size  of  the  school 
appears  to  have  had  no  determining  influence  in  the  case  of  rhetoric. 
The  larger  schools  provided  more  electives  through  a  larger  number 
of  parallel  courses  and  this,  theoretically  at  least,  furnished  different 
types  of  education  for  different  classes  of  students. 

These  different  courses,  however,  resulted  from  the  fact  that  the 
large  schools  were  able  to  offer  a  wider  range  of  traditional  subjects 
rather  than  from  any  attempt  to  meet  in  any  adequate  way  the 
commercial  or  industrial  demands  of  these  urban  communities. 
The  president  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Education  in  his  annual 
report  for  1896  says: 

There  is  yet  one  important  phase  of  human  activity  not  touched  by  our  high- 
school  curriculum,  a  phase  which  in  a  large  sense  dominates  and  gives  direction  to 
all  the  other  elements  of  public  concern.     I  refer  to  the  commercial  interest.* 

Chicago  had  already  established  the  English  and  Manual  Training 
High  School  and  this  movement  was  under  way  in  some  other  cities. 
On  the  whole,  however,  commercial  and  industrial  courses  were  not 
particularly  characteristic  of  city  high  schools  even  at  the  close  of 
the  period.  A  comparison  of  curricula  offered  by  cities  and  small 
towns  fails  to  reveal  that  either  rural  conditions  or  urban  conditions 
affected  the  character  of  educational  opportunity  offered,  aside 
from  the  fact  that  cities  provided  a  wider  range  of  traditional 
subjects.    For  example,  compare  Columbus,  Ohio  and  Adel,  Iowa, 

I  Report  Board  of  Educaliott,  1896,  pp.  28-32. 

109 


110  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

the  latter  a  small  county  seat  town.^  The  curricula  differ  in  no  way 
that  would  suggest  that  the  former  was  a  large  city  and  the  latter 
a  small  town  school  except  in  amount  of  work  offered.  Adel  devoted 
a  little  more  time  to  mathematics  and  less  time  to  other  fields. 
Columbus  devoted  more  time  to  European  history,  one  year  more 
to  science,  and  offered  Latin,  Greek,  French,  German,  and  Spanish, 
whereas  Adel  offered  only  Latin.  Both  offered  commercial  subjects, 
Columbus  offering  the  wider  range,  and  this  is  the  only  difference 
that  could  be  interpreted  as  reflecting  community  demands  of  a 
definite  sort.  This  interpretation  even  becomes  doubtful  when 
comparison  is  made  of  commercial  subjects. 

2.      INFLUENCE  OF  LOCALITY 

Conclusions  relating  to  influence  of  locality  upon  curricula  are 
largely  negative.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  commercial  and  indus- 
trial demands  had  but  little  influence  upon  the  work  of  the  schools 
up  to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  We  should  not  expect, 
therefore,  that  locality  would  determine  the  character  of  the  curric- 
ula from  the  standpoint  of  industrial  and  commercial  interests. 
In  so  far  as  bookkeeping  was  taught,  there  is  no  apparent  connec- 
tion between  the  presence  of  the  subject  in  a  curriculum  and  the 
location  of  the  school. ^ 

A  comparison  of  individual  schools  located  in  various  states 
fails  to  reveal  differences  in  curricula  that  are  not  found  by  com- 
paring schools  located  in  the  same  state.  In  the  older  settled  states, 
high  schools  were  established  earlier  and  certain  traditional  subjects 
sometimes  retained  their  places  in  the  curricula  for  a  considerable 
time  after  they  cease  to  appear  in  the  majority  of  schools.  This 
is  not,  however,  due  to  the  location  of  the  schools,  but  to  the  date 
of  establishment.' 

It  is  true  that  some  subjects  were  offered  in  a  higher  per- 
centage of  schools  in  one  state  than  in  another  but  these  differences 
were  also  found  among  the  schools  of  the  same  state  and  have  but 
little  significance.  Illinois,  Michigan,  Missouri,  and  Minnesota  have 
a  relatively  high  percentage  of  schools  offering  chemistry  while 

»  Cf.  Appendix,  Table  H. 

'  Richmond,  Indiana,  and  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  neither  of  which  was  a  commercial  center,  offered  the 
subject,  while  Dayton  and  Cleveland,  Ohio,  did  not.  Columbus,  Ohio,  offered  the  subject  after  1885,  and 
Springfield,  Illinois,  after  1870.  Madison,  Wisconsin,  offered  it  in  1860,  1883,  1887,  and  1898,  but  did  not 
offer  it  in  1867,  1876,  and  1892. 

'  Dayton,  Ohio,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  and  Madison,  Wisconsin,  retained  mental  philosophy  until  about 
1885.    These  schools  were  established  relatively  early. 


INFLUENCE  OF  SIZE  AND  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS  111 

those  of  Iowa,  Ohio,  and  Wisconsin  rank  much  lower  in  this  sub- 
ject.^ The  fact  is,  however,  that  if  small  as  well  as  large  schools  are 
taken  into  account,  the  majority  of  schools  in  no  state  offered  this 
subject.  There  are  also  fluctuations  in  other  sciences  but  they  have 
no  apparent  significance  in  revealing  community  demands.  It  is 
not  likely,  for  example,  that  the  popular  interest  in  astronomy  was 
any  greater  in  Iowa  than  in  Wisconsin  and  yet  6  per  cent  of  the 
schools  in  the  former  state  and  only  3^  of  1  per  cent  in  the  latter 
offered  the  subject  in  1896.^  We  find  equal  percentages  of  schools 
offering  physical  geography  in  Illinois  and  Michigan,  while  the 
ratio  of  schools  offering  geology  in  the  former  to  those  of  the  latter 
is  2  to  3. 

Algebra  and  geometry  were  practically  constants.  Trigonome- 
try was  more  frequently  offered  in  the  larger  schools  than  in  the 
smaller  while  the  reverse  was  true  of  arithmetic.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  the  English  subjects  were  in  any  way  influenced  by 
locality.^  Latin  was  universally  required  for  entrance  to  classical 
courses  in  higher  institutions  and  the  percentage  of  schools  offering 
the  subject  was  no  doubt  largely  determined  by  the  extent  to  which 
they  attempted  to  meet  these  requirements.  The  highest  percent- 
age of  schools  offering  German  was  in  Wisconsin  and  the  next  high- 
est, in  Michigan.^  One  would  expect  that  states  having  a  large 
German  population  would  have  a  higher  percentage  of  schools 
offering  the  language,  but  Minnesota  with  a  large  Scandinavian 
population  had  a  much  larger  percentage  of  schools  offering  German 
than  did  Iowa  with  a  relatively  large  German  population.^ 

It  is  evident  that  the  same  generalized  educational  ideals 
controlled  in  all  the  states  included  in  this  study.  As  has  been 
pointed  out,  the  chief  differences  in  curricula  were  due  to  differences 
in  population  rather  than  to  the  fact  that  schools  were  situated  in 
different  parts  of  the  area.  Sectional  differences  were  minor  and 
had  no  particular  significance. 

3.      INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  SCHOOLS 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  curricula  has  been  pointed  out  in  connec- 
tion with  Table  I  which  shows  the  wide  differences  in  curricula 

*  Details  for  all  the  states  given  in  the  Report  United  States  Commissioner  Education,  1896-97,  II, 
1893-94. 

'  Ibid. 

•  In  the  earlier  years  the  large  schools  offered  more  work  in  literature,  but  they  were  only  leaders 
in  a  movement  participated  in  by  all  the  schools  later. 

«  Report  United  States  Commissioner  Education,  1896-97,  II,  1893-94. 
*Ihid. 


112  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

organization.  Also  in  Tables  XI-XVIII  is  shown  lack  of  uniform- 
ity in  time  devoted  to  subjects  and  fields.  The  difference  between 
large  and  small  schools  has  been  discussed  above.  It  is  very  evident 
in  the  light  of  these  facts  that  individual  differences  were  pro- 
nounced, but  it  is  clear  that  any  comprehensive  treatment  of  the 
topic  under  discussion  would  require  a  detailed  description  of  the 
curricula  offered  by  a  large  number  of  schools  included  in  Tables 
A-H.  Few  curricula  were  precisely  alike  in  any  period  and  changes 
took  place  in  the  curricula  of  all  the  schools  from  time  to  time. 
These  differences  consisted  in  emphasis  placed  upon  the  various 
fields  offered  by  all  the  schools  and  the  presence  or  absence  of 
subjects  belonging  to  the  miscellaneous  group.  St.  Louis,  Missouri, 
emphasized  English,  particularly  literature,  and  was  one  of  the  few 
schools  which  offered  instruction  in  art.  Chicago,  Illinois,  empha- 
sized science,  and  was  one  of  the  schools  offering  pedagogy.  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  was  one  of  the  few  schools  which  emphasized  English 
in  the  earlier  years.  Madison,  Wisconsin,  offered  commercial  sub- 
jects and  pedagogy.  Wilton,  Iowa,  a  small  town,  offered  more  work 
in  the  social  studies  in  1876  than  was  offered  in  any  other  schools 
included  in  the  list  of  twenty.  Springfield,  Illinois,  offered  the 
maximum  in  this  field  in  1891.  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  offered  the  maxi- 
mum in  science  in  the  same  period  and  was  one  of  the  schools  which 
always  offered  a  large  amount  of  science.  A  comprehensive  treat- 
ment of  this  topic,  as  has  been  said,  would  consist  in  pointing  out 
the  emphasis  and  neglect  of  each  individual  school,  all  of  which  is 
shown  in  detail  in  the  Appendix,  Tables  A-H. 


4.      CHANGES  IN  CURRICULA  OF  INDIVIDUAL  SCHOOLS 

An  analysis  of  the  curricula  of  three  schools  follows.  Parenthe- 
ses indicate  the  subjects  which  were  not  offered  in  the  other  curric- 
ulum.    Figures  show  length  of  time  devoted  to  fields  and  subjects. 

MADISON,  WISCONSIN 

FOUR- YEAR  COURSE  IN  EACH  CASE 

1863  1898 

Mathematics,  3}4  Mathematics,  2% 

Arithmetic,  1  Arithmetic,  % 

Algebra,  1}4  Algebra,  1 

Geometry,  1  Geometry,  1 


INFLUENCE  OF  SIZE  AND  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS 


113 


English,  2% 

Analysis,  % 
Word  analysis,  y^ 
Rhetoric,  1 
Literature,  % 

Science,  3% 
Physiology,  ^ 
Physical  Geography,  % 
Natural  Philosophy  % 
(Chemistry,  %) 
(Geology,  }4) 
(Botany,  H) 
(Astronomy,  3^0 

Social  Studies,  1 
(Ancient  History,  %) 
(Political  Economy,  }4) 


Foreign  Language,  3 

Latin,  3 


Commercial  Subjects 
(Bookkeeping,  J^) 

Miscellaneous  Subjects,  1  % 
(Mental  Philosophy,  %) 
(Moral  Philosophy,  }4) 
(Butler's  Analogy,  ]/Q 
(Logic,  \i) 


English,  2 

(Subjects  not  specified) 
First-year  English,  3  days  per  week 
Second-year  English,  3  days  per  week 
Third-year  English,  2  days  per  week 
Fourth-year  English,  2  days  per  week 

Science,  3J^ 
Physiology,  % 
Physical  Geography,  1 
Physics,  1 
(Biology,  1) 


Social  Studies,  3'/* 
(United  States  History,  1) 
(Civil  Government,  1) 
(History,  IK) 

Foreign  Language,  12 
Latin,  4 
(German,  4) 
(Greek,  4) 

Commercial  Subjects 
None 

Miscellaneous  Subjects,  % 
(Pedagogy,  ]4) 
(Drawing,  K) 


1862 
Mathematics,  1% 

Algebra,  1 
Geometry,  1 
Trigonometry,  % 

English,  \\i 
Rhetoric,  ]/2 
Literature,  % 


Science,  3 
Natural  Philosophy,  % 
Chemistry,  }^ 
Geology,  J^ 
(Botany,  ^) 

(Physical  Geography,  K) 
(Physiology,  H) 


CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 

FOUR- YEAR  COURSE  IN  EACH  CASE 

1892 
Mathematics,  3 
Algebra,  1 
Geometry,  IJ^ 
Trigonometry,  3^ 

English  2  >^ 
Rhetoric  (and  Composition  %) 
Classics,  1 
(History  of  English  Literature,  1) 

Science,  4 
Physics,  1 
Chemistry,  1 
Geology,  \i 
(Biology,  1) 
(Astronomy,  %) 


114 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Social  Studies,  1  % 
United  States  Constitution,  J^ 
Universal  History,  1 
(Political  Economy,  %) 


Foreign  Language,  13 
Latin,  4 
German,  4 
French,  3 
(Greek,  2) 

Commercial  Subjects 

None 


Miscellaneous  Subjects 
(Mental  Philosophy,  }4) 


Social  Studies,  4 
Civics,  J4 
General  History,  1 
(Ancient  History,  1) 
(Political  History,  %) 
(History,  1) 

Foreign  Language,  16 
Latin,  4 
German,  4 
French,  4 
(Spanish,  4) 

Commercial  Subjects,  3 
(Bookkeeping,  1) 
(Stenography,  1) 
(Typewriting,  1) 

Miscellaneous  Subjects,  5 
(Psychology,  1) 
(Manual  Training,  4) 


OSKALOOSA,  IOWA 

COURSE  THREE  YEARS  IN  1873,  FOUR  YEARS  IN  1897 


1873 
Mathematics,  3}4 
Arithmetic,  1 
Algebra,  1^ 
Geometry,  1 

English  2H 

Grammar,  1 
Rhetoric,  % 
(Elocution,  %) 

Science,  2  % 
Physical  Geography,  % 
Natural  Philosophy,  J/^ 
Botany,  % 
Zoology,  }4 
(Physiology,  }4) 

Social  Studies,  5^ 
Outlines  of  History,  % 


Foreign  Language,  6 
Latin,  3 
German,  3 


1897 

Mathematics,  3H 
Arithmetic,  3^ 
Algebra,  1}4 
Geometry,  13^ 

English,  3 

Grammar,  3^ 
Rhetoric,  J^ 
Literature,  2 

Science,  3  }4 
Physical  Geography,  3^ 
Physics,  1 
Botany,  3^ 
Zoology,  14 
(Chemistry,  }/Q 
(Geology,  }4) 

Social  Studies,  3 
Ancient  History,  3^ 
Modern  History,  3^ 
(Civics,  14) 

(United  States  History,  J^) 
(English  History,  3^) 
(Political  Economy,  3^) 

Foreign  Language,  5 

Latin,  4 
German,  1 


INFLUENCE  OF  SIZE  AND  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS  115 

Commercial  Subjects  Commercial  Subjects,  2 

None  (Bookkeeping,  1) 

(Commercial  Arithmetic,  }/Q 
(Commercial  Law,  H) 
No  miscellaneous  subj'ects  offered  in  either  course. 

A  comparison  of  the  changes  which  took  place  in  the  curricula 
of  these  three  schools  reveals  the  same  tendencies  common  to  the 
high  schools  of  the  period.  Increase  of  time  devoted  to  English^ 
and  the  social  studies,  disappearance  of  the  old  miscellaneous  sub- 
jects and  the  offering  of  less  science  subjects  with  more  time  devoted 
to  those  offered,  were  all  general  tendencies.  Oskaloosa  was  an 
exception  to  the  tendency  in  science  and  furnished  an  example  of 
the  survival  in  some  schools  of  the  earlier  practice. 

These  schools  also  serve  as  examples  to  show  the  lack  of  uni- 
formity near  the  close  of  the  period  both  in  subjects  offered  and  in 
time  devoted  to  fields  and  subjects.  All  three  schools  offered  alge- 
bra and  geometry  while  two  offered  arithmetic  and  one  trigonome- 
try. The  time  devoted  to  mathematics  remained  the  same  in  one 
school,  increased  in  another,  and  decreased  in  the  third.  In  science, 
physiology  appears  in  both  curricula  of  Madison  and  only  in  the 
earlier  curricula  of  the  other  two  schools.  Physics  was  a  constant 
in  all  the  schools,  while  physical  geography  was  constant  in  Madison 
and  Oskaloosa  and  is  found  only  in  the  earlier  curriculum  of  Chi- 
cago. Chemistry  and  geology  were  constants  in  Chicago,  are  found 
in  the  earlier  curriculum  of  Madison  and  the  later  one  of  Oskaloosa. 
Astronomy  was  offered  in  the  earlier  curriculum  of  Madison  and  the 
later  one  of  Chicago,  and  in  neither  of  Oskaloosa.  Botany  persisted 
in  all  the  schools,  while  zoology  is  a  constant  in  Oskaloosa  and 
appears  in  the  later  curricula  of  the  other  two  schools. 

The  increase  in  time  devoted  to  the  social  studies  in  all  the 
schools  resulted  in  important  changes  in  the  subjects.  One  cannot 
be  certain  concerning  the  changes  in  European  history  because  of 
the  confusion  in  terminology,  but  it  was  offered  in  each  of  the 
curricula  of  all  the  schools.  None  of  the  schools  offered  United 
States  history  in  the  earlier  curricula,  while  both  Madison  and  Oska- 
loosa did  in  the  later  ones.  Madison  and  Chicago  offered  political 
economy  in  the  earlier  curricula  and  Oskaloosa  in  the  later  one. 
Chicago  offered  Latin,  German,  and  French  in  both  curricula,  Greek 

1  Madison,  Wisconsin,  as  will  be  seen,  devoted  less  total  time  to  English  although  it  was  offered 
throughout  the  four  years.  Decrease  in  time  was  due  to  reduction  in  number  of  recitations  per  week.  In 
the  report  of  that  year  the  principal  of  the  high  school  recommended  that  more  time  be  devoted  to  English 
and  the  report  of  1900-1901  shows  that  this  was  done. 


116  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

in  the  earlier,  and  Spanish  in  the  later.  Madison  offered  Latin  and 
German  in  both. 

None  of  the  commercial  subjects  were  offered  in  the  earlier 
curricula  of  Chicago  and  Oskaloosa,  and  only  bookkeeping  by 
Madison.  The  latter  offered  no  commercial  work  in  the  later  curric- 
ulum, while  Chicago  provided  bookkeeping,  stenography,  and  type- 
writing, and  Oskaloosa,  bookkeeping,  commercial  arithmetic,  and 
commercial  law. 

Oskaloosa  offered  none  of  the  miscellaneous  subjects.  In  the 
case  of  Madison,  the  older  subjects  were  displaced  by  a  meager 
offering  of  pedagogy  and  drawing.  Psychology  took  the  place  of 
mental  philosophy  in  the  curricula  of  Chicago. 

Madison  offered  neither  commercial  nor  industrial  subjects. 
Oskaloosa  offered  the  former  and  Chicago  both.  The  latter  city 
was  one  of  the  few  leaders  in  the  industrial  educational  development 
which  has  made  such  rapid  progress  during  the  last  decade. 


PART  II 
CONDITIONS  AND  CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER 

CHAPTER  IX 

INTRODUCTORY 

In  a  study  of  the  development  of  curricula,  consideration  of  the 
subject-matter  used  in  instruction  in  the  various  fields  is  quite  as 
important  as  that  of  the  subjects.  In  fact  only  by  an  examination 
of  subject-matter  is  one  able  to  ascertain  the  real  character  of  edu- 
cational opportunity  provided  by  the  subjects  constituting  the 
curricula  under  consideration.  It  is  therefore  obvious  in  a  com- 
parative study  of  this  kind  that  subject-matter  must  receive  its 
due  share  of  attention.  Viewed  from  this  standpoint,  changes 
are  more  radical  and  important  than  a  study  of  the  subjects  alone 
reveals.  It  is  the  purpose  of  Part  II  to  make  analyses  of  subject- 
matter  taught  in  the  various  subjects  and  to  indicate  the  changes 
which  took  place.  It  should  be  said  in  this  connection  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  do  more  than  show  the  general  tendencies  which 
mark  the  lines  of  development  in  the  various  fields. 

Subject-matter  will  be  considered  from  two  standpoints — 
amount  offered  and  character  of  material  used  in  instruction.  The 
former  has  already  been  considered  in  Part  I  in  considerable  detail 
and  will  be  treated  here  only  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  that 
discussion  with  the  subject-matter  of  the  several  subjects. 

One  of  the  things  revealed  by  the  present  study  is  that  fields 
and  subjects  differ  greatly.  In  some  fields,  ancient  language  for 
example,  very  little  change  either  in  amount  offered  or  in  character 
of  material  used  has  taken  place.  English  furnishes  an  example  of 
radical  changes  in  literature  and  little  or  no  change  in  grammar. 
In  the  case  of  some  science  subjects,  botany  for  example,  important 
changes  have  occurred,  while  in  astronomy  practically  no  change  is 
noted. 

It  is  very  evident,  therefore,  that  an  appearance  of  unevenness 
in  the  treatment  of  the  various  subjects  is  inevitable.  Of  some 
subjects,  Latin  for  example,  little  can  be  said  for  the  reason  that 
the  subject-matter  remained  practically  unchanged.  On  the  other 
hand,  English  is  an  example  of  a  field  requiring  more  detailed  treat- 

117 


118  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

ment  in  order  to  make  clear  the  extent  and  character  of  the  changes 
which  have  taken.place  in  the  subject-matter  used  in  instruction. 
The  same  general  plan  of  treatment  will  be  followed  as  in  Part  I, 
the  various  fields  and  subjects  being  considered  under  their  appro- 
priate titles. 

MATHEMATICS 

It  has  been  shown'  that  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  this 
field  remained  practically  unchanged  throughout  the  entire  period. 
In  view  of  this,  and  also  as  shown  by  an  examination  of  textbooks, 
it  is  probable  that  no  great  change  occurred  in  the  amount  of 
material  offered  although  t  is  clear  that  some  diminution  took 
place.  Some  change,  however,  is  evident  in  the  character  of  subject- 
matter.  This  was  brought  about  in  three  ways — first,  by  the 
decline  in  importance  of  trigonometry  and  the  final  disappearance 
of  such  subjects  as  analytics,  calculus,  surveying  and  navigation, 
and  engineering.^  It  should  be  said  in  this  connection  that  the 
relative  importance  of  trigonometry  in  1900  was  less  than  is  indi- 
cated by  Table  X  since  the  data  were  taken  chiefly  from  the  cur- 
ricula of  the  arger  schools.  Had  this  table  included  data  from  a 
proportional  number  of  curricula  of  the  smaller  schools,  the  per- 
centage of  the  schools  offering  the  subjects  would  have  been  cor- 
respondingly less. 

The  first  way,  then,  in  which  changes  took  place  was  by  means 
of  elimination.  The  second  way  was  through  an  extension  of  time 
given  to  other  mathematical  subjects,  particularly  algebra  and 
geometry,  resulting  in  additional  material  being  offered  in  these 
subjects.  The  third,  and  least  important  change,  was  the  elimina- 
tion of  material  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry,  and  the 
substitution  of  other  content.  Clearness  in  treatment  will  be  best 
secured  by  treating  each  of  theze  subjects  separately. 

Changes  were  more  pronounced  in  arithmetic  than  n  either  of 
the  other  mathematical  subjects,  A  comparison  of  the  textbooks 
used  in  the  earlier  period  with  those  of  the  later  shows  that  the 
amount  of  material  decreased  and  became  more  simple  in  character. 
One  of  the  texts  in  common  use  until  about  1875  was  Ray's  Higher 
Arithmetic.^  This  book  was  an  advanced  text  and  contained  in 
addition  to  the  usual  arithmetical  topics  the  following:  circulating 

« Cf.  Tables  XX-XXVII. 

'  Cf.  Appendix,  Tables  A  and  H;  also  Table  X,  chap.  vi. 

'  Ray,  Joseph,  Ray's  Higher  Arithmetic:  The  Principles  of  Arithmetic  Analyzed  and  Practicatty 
Applied,  For  Advanced  Students,  1858. 


INTRODUCTORY  119 

decimals,  aliquot  parts,  exchanges,  accounts  current,  storage, 
equation  of  payments,  annuities,  series  (arithmetical  and  geo- 
metrical), permutations,  combinations,  systems  of  notation,  duo- 
decimals, mechanical  powers,  general  average,  rate  bills  for  schools, 
allegation. 

One  of  the  features  of  this  book  was  a  list  of  "promiscuous 
exercises."  Two  sets  of  problems  were  given:  fifty  examples  were 
to  be  analyzed  presumably  for  the  "mental  discipline"  derived 
from  the  process,  and  about  an  equal  number  was  designated 
"practical  examples."  The  following  are  typical  problems  from 
the  first  set: 

%  of  my  money  equals  ^  of  yours.  If  we  put  our  money  together  what 
part  will  I  own? 

I  sold  an  article  for  34  more  than  it  cost  me  to  A  who  sold  it  for  $6,  which  was 
%  less  than  it  cost  him.     What  did  it  cost  me? 

At  what  time  between  6  and  7  o'clock  are  the  hour  and  minute  hands  20 
minutes  apart? 

The  following  are  typical  of  the  practical  examples: 

How  far  apart  should  the  knots  of  a  log-line  be  to  indicate  every  half-minute 
a  speed  of  1  mile  per  hour? 

Find  the  least  number  which,  divided  by  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  leaves  a  remainder 
of  1  each  time. 

Bought  eggs  on  credit,  the  first  time  1  dozen,  and  each  succeeding  time  3 
more.  My  last  purchase  was  l}/2  dozen.  The  bill  was  presented  for  120  dozen. 
How  much  too  large  was  it? 

Scattered  throughout  the  book  was  a  considerable  number  of 
problems  dealing  with  business  transactions  and  some  emphasis 
was  therefore  placed  upon  what  later  came  to  be  called  commercial 
arithmetic.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  form  of  the  problems  is 
considered  of  more  importance  than  the  content.  In  the  preface 
the  author  says  "In  questions  of  proportion  and  generally  through- 
out the  book,  the  analytical  method  of  solution  has  been  preferred 
to  mere  formal  and  irrational  directions,  for  no  true  development 
of  the  intellectual  powers  or  satisfactory  knowledge  of  any  science 
can  be  attained  until  the  spirit  of  every  operation  is  clearly  seen 
through  its  form." 

Another  book  of  this  same  general  type  and  still  in  use  as  late 
as  1870,  was  Greenleaf's  National  Arithmetic}  This  contains  the 
topics  found  in  Ray's  text  and  also  the  customary  list  of  pro- 

'  Greenleaf,  Benjamin,  The  National  Arithmetic  in  the  Inductive  System:  Combining  the  Analytical 
and  Synthetic  Methods  Together  with  the  Cancelling  System,  1850. 


120  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

miscuous  examples.  He  states  in  the  preface  that  arithmetic  has 
a  twofold  aim — "a  practical  knowledge  of  numbers  and  the  art  of 
calculation  and  the  discipline  of  the  mental  powers." 

Milne's  Practical  Arithmetic^  was  not  so  difficult  as  the  texts 
above  mentioned  and  in  reality  a  grammar-school  book.  The  special 
topics  mentioned  in  connection  with  Ray's  text  are  not  found  in 
this  book.  Promiscuous  examples,  or  the  familiar  puzzle  type,  are 
still  retained.  Robinson's  Series  were  very  similar  to  Milne's  in 
content  and  arrangement.  In  one  of  these  texts^  which  seems  to 
have  been  in  common  use  in  the  high  school  and  was  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  elementary  phase  of  the  subject,  allegation  is  still 
retained,  but  the  other  advanced  topics  are  omitted.  The  book 
contains  no  list  of  promiscuous  examples. 

The  later  editions  of  the  Robinson  and  Wentworth  Series  do 
not  differ  materially  from  the  earlier  editions  or  from  the  Milne 
books.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  tendency  was  toward  sim- 
plification by  omitting  the  more  abstract  topics  and  by  substituting 
the  more  practical  problems  for  the  puzzle  problems  found  in  the 
older  books.  The  transition,  however,  was  not  sudden  and  no 
particular  date  can  be  assigned  as  marking  the  time  when  the 
change  took  place.  Robinson's  books  were  used  as  early  as  1870 
and  Ray's  as  late  as  1895.  The  general  tendency  was  to  displace 
the  latter  type  by  the  former,  and  this  was  rather  completely 
accomplished  by  1900. 

Little  need  be  said  concerning  algebra.  There  was  practically 
no  change  in  the  character  of  subject-matter  in  elementary  algebra 
after  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.^  The  change  was  in 
amount  of  subject-matter  used  in  instruction.  Tables  XX  and 
XXVII  show  that  the  average  time  devoted  to  algebra  in  1865  was 
less  than  one  year  while  in  1900  it  was  approximately  a  year  and  a 
half.  The  minimum  at  the  former  date  was  one-half  year  and  at 
the  latter  one  year.  This  increase  in  time  means  increase  in 
subject-matter  as  shown  by  the  textbooks,  and  these  constitute  the 
only  source  of  information.  College  entrance  requirements  are 
indefinitely  stated  and  throw  but  little  light  upon  the  question. 

I  MiLKE,  William  J.,  A  Practical  Arithmetic  on  the  Inductive  Plan,  Including  Oral  and  Written  Exer- 
cises, 1877. 

'  Fish,  Daniel  W.  (Editor  of  Robinson's  Series  of  Arithmetics),  A  Complete  Arithmetic,  Oral  and 
Written,  1881. 

>  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  1911,  I,  92.  Textbooks  in  use  1860-1900  show  that  the  only  change  of 
importance  in  subject-matter  had  to  do  with  the  amount  of  material  used  in  instruction.  Cf.  Davies, 
Loomis,  Robinson,  Olney,  Milne,  Wells,  and  Wentworth  texts.  ^  j^ 


INTRODUCTORY  121 

In  the  earlier  years  students  were  admitted  only  by  examination 
and  the  requirements  are  not  specific.  For  example,  the  University 
of  Illinois  in  1868  required  a  "satisfactory  examination  in  each  of 
the  branches  ordinarily  taught  in  the  common  schools  of  the  state. "^ 
In  1873,  algebra  is  mentioned  in  the  list  of  subjects  in  which 
examinations  were  required  but  the  extent  of  preparation  is  not 
indicated.  Later  (1877)  the  work  is  specified  as  "including  equa- 
tions of  the  second  degree  and  the  calculus  of  radical  quantities." 
This  statement  of  requirements  in  the  subject  is  repeated  in  the 
catalog  as  late  as  1891.  This  indicates  no  change  in  the  subject- 
matter  to  be  offered.  The  textbooks  also  show  this  and  further 
that  problems  and  exercises  were  more  numerous,  thereby  bringing 
about  a  change  not  in  the  character  of  the  material  used  in  instruc- 
tion but  merely  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  work  required. 

Geometry,  like  algebra,  has  a  brief  history.  "It  was  from  1850 
to  1875  that  plane  geometry  took  its  definite  place  in  the  secondary 
school. "2  In  the  earlier  type  of  textbook  proofs  were  given  in 
essay  form  and  there  were  no  exercises  provided.'  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  text  containing  exercises  and  became  the  typical  text 
in  the  high  school.*  The  next  step  was  the  "unit"  page;  i.e.,  the 
material  was  arranged  in  steps  to  aid  the  eye,  one  proposition  to  a 
page  where  this  was  possible.^  The  Wentworth  geometry  was  a 
pioneer  in  this  respect  in  this  country.^  These  statements  repre- 
sent the  only  changes  of  much  importance  that  took  place  in  this 
subject. 

The  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  subject  increased  somewhat 
as  shown  by  Tables  XX  and  XXVII.  This  shows  that  whereas 
the  average  was  approximately  three-fourths  of  a  year  in  1860-65, 
this  had  risen  to  a  fraction  less  than  one  and  one-fifth  years  in 
1896-1900.  While  the  maximum  and  minimum  had  increased 
two-thirds  and  one-third  respectively,  the  mode  had  remained  the 
same,  one  year. 

The  changes  which  took  place  can  perhaps  be  made  clear  in  no 
better  way  than  by  comparing  Davies  Legendre^  and  Wentworth's 

•  Calnlog,  University  of  Illinois,  1868-69.     Entrance  requirements. 
2  A  Cyclopedia  oj  Education,  1911,  III,  51. 

»  Smith,  D.  E.,  The  Teaching  of  Geometry,  1911,  p.  72. 

*  A  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  1911,  III,  32. 

»  Smith,  D.  E.,  TIte  Teaching  of  Geometry,  1911,  p.  72. 
tibid. 

'  The  edition  of  1862  was  used  in  making  comparisons.  No  exercises  and  the  essay  form  of  demon- 
stration used. 


122  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Plane  and  Solid  Geometry.^  The  former  is  typical  of  the  older  type 
of  instruction  and  the  latter  of  the  new.  Lists  of  textbooks  do  not 
show  that  Wentworth  was  used  previous  to  1880  and  Davies  was 
still  in  use  as  late  as  1895.  In  the  period  1880-85  the  former  was 
used  in  about  one-half  and  by  1895  in  nearly  75  per  cent  of  the 
schools.  Some  of  the  other  texts  belonging  to  the  older  type  were 
Loomis,  Olney,  and  Ray.  These  were  somewhat  modified  in 
method  of  treatment  but  clearly  belong  to  the  older  type.  Among 
those  adopting  essentially  Wentworth's  method  of  treatment  were 
the  texts  of  Wells  and  Welsh. 

1  The  edition  of  1899  shows  the  greater  contrast  in  that  the  original  exercises  are  more  extended  and 
the  figures  tend  to  greater  distinctness  in  outline.  The  latter  developed  into  the  use  of  photographs  in 
later  books.     Wells's  Essentials  of  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry,  1898,  was  very  similar  to  the  Went  wort  h  text . 


CHAPTER  X 

ENGLISH 

In  no  other  field  have  the  changes  been  so  radical  and  important 
as  in  the  field  of  English.  This  change  is  marked  in  three  ways. 
The  first  thing  that  challenges  attention  in  a  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  English  work  in  the  high  school  is  the  increase  in  the 
amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  field. ^  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
maximum  time  increased  nearly  three  years,  the  minimum  more 
than  a  year,  and  the  mode  and  average  each  one  year.  Next  to  be 
noticed  is  the  increasing  importance  of  English  as  evidenced  by  the 
tendency  toward  greater  uniformity  among  the  schools.'^  While 
the  schools  are  far  from  being  uniform  in  their  practice  in  1900,  a 
comparison  of  the  tables  cited  above  shows  a  marked  tendency 
toward  giving  Enblish  the  important  place  it  now  occupies.  This 
tendency  toward  uniformity  is  also  shown  in  another  way.  In  the 
earlier  years  the  classical  courses  frequently  required  little  or  no 
English  while  requirements  as  high  as  three  years  in  this  subject 
were  made  in  the  other  courses.  For  example,  the  classical  course 
of  the  Ann  Arbor  high  school  (1859)  required  only  English  analysis.' 
It  is  also  probable  that  the  same  course  offered  by  Jacksonville, 
Illinois  (1869),  required  little  English.^  These  schools  are  fairly 
representative  of  the  practice  during  the  earlier  years. 

It  is  also  made  clear  by  a  study  of  college  entrance  requirements 
that  the  earlier  college  preparatory  courses  gave  very  much  less 
attention  to  English  than  is  the  practice  at  the  present  time.  The 
increase  of  attention  to  the  subject  is  also  shown  by  increase  in 
requirements.  For  example,  in  1867  the  University  of  Illinois 
required  examinations  only  in  orthography,  reading,  and  grammar.* 
As  late  as  1873  no  English  requirement  is  specified  except  gram- 
mar.^ On  the  contrary,  in  1899-1900^  this  same  institution  re- 
quired composition,  rhetoric,  and  literature  for  entrance  and  the 
statement  in  the  catalog  specifies  that  "two  years  of  high-school 

I  Cf.  Table  XIX. 

>  Cf .  Tables  XI  and  XVIII. 

»  Cf.  p.  20. 

«C{.  p.  23. 

'  Cf.  Catalog,  University  of  Illinois,  1867,  p.  24. 

•  Ibid.,  p.  39. 

'  Ibid.,  pp.  49-50. 

123 


124  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

work  with  five  recitations  per  week  will  be  necessary  for  the  above 
preparation."  Other  institutions^  show  the  same  meager  require- 
ments in  the  earlier  years  and  a  gradual  increase  in  requirements  to 
the  close  of  the  period. 

The  third  way  in  which  change  took  place  was  in  the  relative 
emphasis  placed  upon  the  different  English  subjects  and  in  the 
character  of  subject-matter.  The  change  in  emphasis  is  shown  in 
Table  X  and  in  more  detail  in  the  Appendix,  Tables  A-H  inclusive. 
It  is  clearly  shown  in  these  tables  that  the  relative  amount  of 
attention  given  to  grammar  and  rhetoric  decreased  while  that  of 
literature  increased.  The  status  of  composition  is  not  so  easily 
determined  because  it  was  taught  more  or  less  in  connection  with 
other  English  subjects.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  actual 
time  given  to  composition  increased.  The  earlier  practice  was  to 
list  it  in  a  footnote  of  the  printed  course  along  with  declamation 
and  other  general  exercises.'^  The  later  practice  of  according  it  a 
regular  place  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  was  introduced  into  the 
body  of  the  curriculum^  and  in  some  cases  offered  as  an  elective 
against  one  of  the  traditional  subjects.* 

The  changes  in  subject-matter  in  this  field  are  important  and 
more  radical  than  in  most  other  fields.  This  is  shown  by  details 
given  in  the  printed  courses  of  study,  by  college  entrance  require- 
ments, and  most  clearly  of  all  by  the  textbooks  used. 

The  least  change  is  found  in  the  case  of  grammar.  This  was  a 
textbook  subject  and  the  texts  in  use  reveal  the  character  of  the 
subject-matter.  A  comparative  study  of  these  reveals  that  the 
change  which  took  place  was  on  the  whole  unimportant.  Courses 
of  study  show  that  "Analysis,"  "English  Analysis,"  and  "Sentential 
Analysis"  were  terms  in  common  use  up  to  1875  and  they  survived 
even  beyond  that.  These  titles  fairly  represent  the  character  of 
material  and  suggest  the  method  of  treatment  in  the  older  gram- 
mars. Welch's  text^  consists  of  definitions,  rules,  and  abundant 
material  for  analysis  and  parsing.     He  says  in  the  preface : 

A  systematic  analysis  of  the  English  sentence  should  hold  a  prominent  rank, 
merely  as  a  means  of  mental  development. 

'  Cf.  Catalog,  of  Indiana  University,  University  of  Iowa,  Cornell  College,  and  De  Pauw  University 
entrance  requirements. 

2  Cf.  pp.  20,  21,  23,  24,  26,  28,  31. 

•Cf.  pp.  30,  31,34,  40. 

«  Cf .  pp.  30,  40. 

»  Welch,  A.  S.,  Analysis  of  the  English  Sentence,  Designed  for  Advanced  Classes  in  English  Grammar, 
1862. 


ENGLISH  125 

Greene's  Grammar^  was  very  similar  both  in  subject-matter 
and  method  of  treatment  to  the  text  cited  above.  Clark's  Normal 
Grammar^  was  not  essentially  different  from  these  other  books. 
A  system  of  diagrams  was  used  but  this  did  not  change  the  character 
of  the  work.  It  simply  constituted  a  device  probably  more  or  less 
useful  in  carrying  on  the  usual  type  of  formal  work  in  analysis  and 
parsing.  Except  for  the  use  of  the  diagram  in  Clark's  book  no 
written  work  is  anywhere  indicated  and  the  emphases  employed 
in  all  three  books  suggest  nothing  but  memorizing  definitions  and 
rules  and  oral  exercises  in  analysis  and  parsing. 

Swinton's  book^  does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  other  texts 
then  in  use  except  in  the  emphasis  upon  iomposition.  While  the 
author  in  the  preface  makes  claim  that  his  treatment  is  not  formal, 
the  claim  is  not  justified  by  the  book  itself.  Mental  discipline  is 
stated  in  the  preface  as  one  of  the  aims  in  teaching  grammar  as 
will  be  shown  by  the  following: 

The  author  would  state  in  a  single  sentence  that  his  aim  has  been  to  set 
forth,  in  the  light  of  the  latest  scholarship,  the  etymology  and  syntax  of  the 
English  language  and  to  make  this  a  logical,  systematic,  and  well-ordered  prospec- 
tus of  this  great  subject  with  a  view  to  both  individual  development  and  wit- 
sharpening  and  to  the  attainment  of  a  fair  mastery  of  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  our  language. 

There  is  bound  with  this  volume  a  School  Manual  of  Composition'-^ 
by  the  same  author.  This  was  also  published  separately.  It  is 
evident  that  the  author  places  more  emphasis  than  was  Usual  upon 
written  composition  as  a  means  of  securing  drill  in  grammatical 
forms.  This,  however,  has  to  do  with  method  in  teaching  and 
not  with  change  in  the  subject-matter  itself. 

Reed  and  Kellogg's  text*  was  one  of  the  most  widely  used  books 
after  1890  as  shown  by  published  lists  of  textbooks.  The  authors 
state  three  aims  for  the  study  of  a  sentence :  (1)  to  give  a  knowledge  vyr 
of  the  laws  of  discourse;  (2)  to  aid  in  giving  ability  to  translate 
foreign  language ;  (3)  to  provide  mental  discipline.  They  assert  in 
this  connection  that  the  sentence  is  made  the  basis  of  study  not 
from  the  standpoint  of  its  analysis,  but  its  meaning.     Extensive 

>  Greene,  Samuel  S.,  A  Grammar  of  the  English  Language  Adapted  to  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Acade- 
mies, 1860. 

'  Clakk,  Stephen  W.,  The  Normal  Grammar  Analytic  and  Snythetic:  Illustrated  by  Diagrams,  1870. 

'  SwiNTON,  William,  A  General  Etymology  and  Syntax  of  the  English  Language:  A  Progressive  Gram- 
mar of  the  English  Language,  1872. 

*  Reed  and  Kellogg,  Higher  Lessons  in  English — A  Work  on  English  Grammar  and  Composition: 
In  which  the  Study  of  the  Science  of  the  Language  is  made  Tributary  to  the  Art  of  Expression.     1877, 1885, 1896. 


126  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

use  is  made  of  the  diagram  as  a  means  of  analysis  and  this  seems 
to  have  resulted  in  a  continuation  of  the  practice  of  emphasizing 
formal  analysis  and  parsing.  This  conclusion  is  justified  by  the 
contents  and  method  of  treatment  and  is  supported  by  a  statement 
in  the  preface  of  the  1896  edition  as  follows: 

We  confess,  to  some  surprise,  that  so  little  of  what  was  thought  good  in  matter 
and  method  years  ago  has  been  seriously  affected  by  criticism. 

One  reason,  no  doubt,  why  criticism  did  so  little  to  secure  reform 
was  that  it  was  confined  quite  exclusively  to  statements  in  the  pref- 
aces and  found  no  constructive  expressions  in  the  texts  themselves, 
either  with  regard  to  contents  or  method  of  treatment.  A  knowl- 
edge of  grammar  as  an  end  in  itself  and  mental  discipline,  in  spite  of 
all  statements  to  the  contrary,  continued  to  constitute  the  chief 
aims  in  the  teaching  of  grammar,  so  far  as  the  texts  themselves 
concerned,  to  the  end  of  the  century.  vThese  ideas  had  become 
so  fixed  that  composition  and  later  literature  were  drafted  more  or 
less  into  service  to  accomplish  these  aims.) 

Changes  of  considerable  importance  took  place  in  rhetoric. 
The  earlier  texts  show  the  relations  of  this  subject  to  logic,  and 
subject-matter  and  method  of  treatment  are  both  largely  deter- 
mined from  this  point  of  view.  Whateley's  Elements  of  Rhetorical 
Composition^  is  typical  of  this  class  of  texts.  The  author  claims 
to  have  divorced  the  subject  from  logic  but  neither  the  contents 
of  the  book  nor  the  method  of  treatment  justify  the  claim.  The 
chapter  titles  are  as  follows:  "Of  Propositions,"  "Of  Arguments," 
"Of  Fiction,"  "Persuasion,"  "Perspicuity,"  "Energy,"  "Elegance," 
"Elocution."  No  reference  is  made  to  composition,  grammatical 
rules,  or  forms  of  speech  except  in  the  section  devoted  to  energy. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  a  treatise  on  argumentation.  Some  of  the 
subtopics  treated  are  as  follows:  presumption  pertaining  to  proof, 
presumption  in  favor  of  existing  institutions,  presumption  of 
innocence,  arguments  of  cause  and  effect,  how  to  prepare  a  sermon, 
spurious  oratory. 

Another  text^  of  the  older  type  by  Alexander  Bain  shows  that 
the  logical  viewpoint  still  prevailed  although  it  is  more  modern 
both  as  to  content  and  method  of  treatment,  l  More  attention  is 
given  to  rhetorical  forms  and  composition  than  is  found  in  Whate- 

>  Whateley,  Richard,  An  Analysis  of  the  Laws  of  Moral  Evidence  of  Persuasion  with  Rules  for 
Argumentation,  Delivery  and  Composition.     1853. 

'  Bain,  Alexander,  English  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  1866. 


ENGLISH  127 

ley's  book.)  The  text  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Part  I,  "Composi- 
tion in  General,"  treats  of  figures  of  speech,  arrangement  of  words, 
quality  of  style,  sentences,  paragraphing,  etc.  Part  II,  "Kinds  of 
Composition,"  is  devoted  to  narrative,  exposition,  persuasion,  and 
poetry.  This  part  shows  the  influence  of  the  logical  point  of  view 
both  in  subject-matter  and  method  of  treatment. 

Haven's  Rhetoric^  is  another  example  of  the  older  texts,  but 
suggests  very  clearly  the  tendency  to  emphasize  grammatical  and 
rhetorical  rather  than  logical  forms.  In  the  preface  the  author 
says: 

I  would  respectfully  suggest  to  teachers  that  students  of  rhetoric  should 
always  combine  practice  with  study  and  should  always  be  required  to  produce 
either  original  or  selected  examples  of  every  form  of  speech  and  of  every  kind  of 
composition  and  every  style  described.  Once  a  week  the  class  may  present  in 
writing  specimens  or  illustrations  of  what  has  been  studied  during  the  week. 
The  exercises  suggested  in  Part  IV,  "Invention"  should  all  be  fairly  wrought  out 
after  the  previous  parts  have  been  studied.  In  this  way  the  science  and  the  art 
are  so  welded  together  in  the  memory  as  to  be  of  permanent  value. 

The  book  is  divided  into  five  parts:  Part  I,  "Words."  (Empha- 
sis is  placed  upon  the  importance  of  words  and  direction  is  given  for 
securing  a  broader  and  more  useful  vocabulary.)  Part  II,  "Figures 
of  Speech";  Part  III,  "Style";  Part  IV,  "Invention";  Part  V, 
"Elocution."  More  than  one  hundred  pages  are  devoted  to  figures 
of  speech  and  about  an  equal  number  to  composition  and  style. 
The  following  is  a  good  summary  of  the  character  of  instruction 
in  rhetoric  during  at  least  the  first  half  of  the  period  covered  by  this 
study : 

^  Up  to  about  1880  the  work  done  in  rhetoric  was  of  the  most  formal  and 
artificial  sort  and  was  not  often  accompanied  by  practical  exercises  or  composi- 
tions.^ 

About  this  time  two  texts^  were  published  which  mark  a  beginning 
at  least  of  a  transition  to  the  second  period  in  the  development  in 
the  character  of  subject-matter.  This  period  has  been  charac- 
terized as  follows: 

Then  came  a  change  in  our  text  books.  From  about  1885  to  1895,  one  of 
the  most  difficult  problems  relating  to  secondary  work  in  English  was  that  of  the 
part  played  in  systematic  rhetoric  by  the  correction  of  "bad"  English;  i.e.,  in 
grammatical  and  idiomatic  expressions'.     At  that  time  text  books  most  in  use 

1  Copyright,  1869. 

s  Carpenter,  G.  R.,  Baker,  F.  T.  and  Scott,  F.  N.,   Teaching  of  English  Composition,  1903,  p.  218. 

'  Hill,  Adam  S.,  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  1878. 


128  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

concerned  themselves  largely  with  exercises  of  this  kind  and  many  colleges  made 
a  point  of  including  such  texts  in  their  entrance  requirements.^ 

The  texts  above  referred  to  do  not,  however,  represent  in  any 
marked  way  the  change  of  point  of  view  indicated  in  the  quotation, 
but  show  the  shift  of  attention  from  logical  to  rhetorical  forms. 
A.  S.  Hill's  text  has  a  considerable  leaning  still  to  the  older  type  of 
subject-matter  and  organization  as  shown  by  the  emphasis  upon 
"argumentative  composition."  The  text  by  D.  J.  Hill  emphasizes 
literary  forms  to  a  greater  extent  and  devotes  about  fifty  pages  to 
special  forms  of  composition  such  as  letters,  orations,  and  the  like. 
At  the  close  of  the  book  another  fifty  pages  is  given  to  exercises  in 
style  and  in  the  use  of  punctuation  marks  and  capitals. 

Another  text  by  Kellogg'^  which  was  widely  used  shows  some- 
what more  clearly  the  type  of  work  referred  to  in  the  quotation 
characterizing  the  work  from  1885  to  1895.  The  work  is  divided 
into  three  parts  as  follows:  "Invention,"  "Qualities  of  Style,"  and 
"Productions."  Part  I  is  devoted  to  the  structure  of  sentences 
and  the  material  is  very  similar  to  that  found  in  Reed  and  Kellogg's 
Higher  Lessons  in  English.  Part  H  consists  in  considerable  detail 
in  a  formal  discussion  of  rhetorical  principles.  Illustrative  material 
is  usually  in  the  form  of  single  sentences  indicating  the  emphasis 
upon  sentence  structure  and  the  use  of  words.  Considerable 
attention  is  devoted  to  figures  of  speech  and  a  knowledge  of  these 
is  evidently  regarded  as  more  important  than  practice  in  their 
proper  uses.  Part  III,  devoted  to  production,  occupies  about  one 
hundred  pages,  illustrating  the  various  forms  of  composition.  Of 
these  one  hundred  pages,  however,  more  than  sixty  are  devoted  to 
poetry  and  abundant  material  is  used  in  illustrating  its  different 
kinds.  Much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  classification  of  poetry 
under  appropriate  headings. 

The  last  three  books  cited  represent  the  type  of  material  used 
in  many  of  the  schools  to  the  close  of  the  century.  The  relation  of 
rhetoric  to  composition  of  a  formal  sort  is  emphasized.  In  fact 
one  of  the  chief  aims  apparently  of  the  latter  was  to  provide  drill 
in  rhetorical  forms.  This  relationship  will  be  discussed  later  in 
more  detail. 

Textbooks  which  came  into  use  just  at  the  close  of  the  period 
indicate  the  modifications  which  then  took  place  in  character  of 

» Hnx,  David  J.,  Principles  of  Rhetoric  and  Their  Application,  1878,  1884. 

'  Kellogg,  Brainard,  A  Text-Book  on  Rhetoric,  Supplementing  and  Developing  All  the  Senses  with 
Exhaustive  Practice  in  Composition,  1892.     (This  text  follows  closely  the  plan  of  the  edition  of  1880.) 


ENGLISH  129 

subject-matter  and  organization.  One  of  these^  states  the  point 
of  view  thus  in  the  preface: 

That  rhetoric  in  the  high  school  should  be  regarded  simply  as  a  "course"  to 
be  pursued  and  passed  and  put  out  of  remembrance  as  quickly  as  possible  is  not 
good  either  for  rhetoric  or  for  composition.  In  this  book,  as  the  name  signifies, 
no  such  apartness  has  been  recognized.  The  rhetoric  which  is  found  in  this  book 
is  meant  to  be  the  theory  of  the  pupils'  practices,  nothing  more — the  explicit 
statement  of  principles  which  are  implicit  in  all  successful  elementary  com- 
position. 

The  book  as  a  matter  of  fact  deals  with  the  principles  and  practices 
of  composition  and  as  the  authors  state,  "rhetoric  is  meant  to  be 
the  theory  of  the  pupils'  practice."  Chapter  and  section  titles 
indicate  further  this  point  of  view:  "External  Forms  of  the  Para- 
graph," "Paragraph  Structure,"  "What  to  Say,"  "How  to  Say  It," 
"In  What  Order  to  Say  It,"  "How  Much  to  Say,"  "What  Not  to 
Say."  Figures  of  speech  receive  only  scant  attention  in  six  pages 
of  the  index,  and  poetry  but  thirteen  pages.  When  one  compares 
this  text  with  Kellogg's  book,  for  example,  the  older  viewpoint, 
with  its  emphasis  upon  the  formal  principles  of  rhetoric  and  the 
use  of  composition  chiefly  as  a  means  of  drill  in  learning  these, 
stands  out  in  clear  contrast.  And  after  1885  this  viewpoint  con- 
trolled chiefly  in  school  practice  even  beyond  the  close  of  the 
century. 

Literature  is  the  subject  in  which  the  most  important  changes 
took  place  from  the  standpoints  both  of  amount  and  character  of 
subject-matter.  Table  X  shows  this  in  terms  of  percentage  and 
Tables  A-H,  inclusive,  in  detail  so  far  as  the  increase  in  time 
devoted  to  the  subject  is  concerned.  It  is  shown  by  Table  A  that 
at  least  five  of  the  schools  offered  no  work  in  literature.  A  refer- 
ence to  the  table  also  shows  that,  with  one  exception,  those  schools 
which  offered  the  subject  placed  the  emphasis  upon  other  English 
subjects.  Table  H,  on  the  contrary,  shows  the  prominent  place 
given  to  literature  and  indicates  the  increasing  importance  of  the 
subject. 

In  a  discussion  of  the  character  of  the  subject-matter  used  in 
instruction  it  should  be  said  at  the  outset  that  the  term  "literature" 
means  largely  English  literature.  American  literature  has  received 
comparatively  little  attention.  For  example,  in  1865,  American 
literature  was  not  offered  in  a  single  one  of  the  schools  included  in 

*  Scxwi;  Fked  Newton,  and  Denny,  Joseph  Velhers,  Rhetoric,  Designed  for  Use  in  the  Secondary 
Schools,  1897. 


130  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Table  A.  This  does  not  quite  represent  the  facts  in  the  case 
since  some  of  these  schools  offered  reading  and  the  textbooks  con- 
tained a  few  selections  from  American  authors.  But  the  emphasis 
even  here  was  overwhelmingly  upon  the  work  of  English  writers. 
As  time  went  on  more  attention  was  devoted  to  American  literature, 
but  even  at  the  close  of  the  period,  Table  H  shows  the  decided 
emphasis  still  remaining  upon  English  literature.  College  entrance 
requirements  also  show  this.  For  example,  the  University  of 
Illinois^  in  1896  required  nine  classics  to  be  read  in  high  school, 
six  of  which  were  English  and  three  American. 

In  considering  the  content  of  the  material  used  in  instruction, 
three  stages  in  development  are  evident.  It  is  not  possible  to  say 
definitely  when  one  of  these  stages  ended  and  another  began  since 
there  was  considerable  overlapping.  But  from  the  standpoint  of 
emphasis,  at  least,  there  were  three  rather  well-marked  stages  in 
the  teaching  of  literature. 

The  first  stage  was  marked  by  emphasis  upon  Select  Readings. 
These  consisted  of  short  selections  from  a  relatively  large  number  of 
authors.  Mention  of  required  Select  Readings  is  found  in  the 
footnotes  of  printed  courses  of  study.  Reading  was  regularly 
taught  as  shown  by  the  details  of  the  courses.^  Lists  of  textbooks 
contain  titles  of  texts  in  reading  and  this  shows  that  the  subject 
was  taught  as  a  regular  subject.  The  books  themselves  show  the 
character  of  the  subject-matter  used.^  Compendiums  of  literature 
are  also  included  in  lists  of  textbooks,  and  they  contain  material 
of  the  same  general  character  as  found  in  the  readers.* 

The  work  in  reading  had  a  twofold  purpose — that  of  training  in 
oral  reading  and  declamation  and  that  of  acquainting  the  student 
with  good  literature.  The  emphasis  upon  oral  reading  is  shown 
by  the  character  of  the  material  in  the  texts,  and  the  almost  uni- 
versal practice  of  requiring  declamation  is  revealed  by  the  footnotes 
to  the  printed  courses  of  study .^ 

Emphasis  upon  the  mechanics  of  reading  is  shown  by  a  study 
of  the  contents  of  McGuffy's  Sixth  Reader.     About  sixty  pages  are 

*  Catalog,  University  of  Illinois,  1896.     Entrance  requirements. 

*  Cf.  Appendix,  Tables  A,  B,  and  C. 

»  McGutfy's  Fijlh  and  Sixth  Readers;  The  Independent  Fifth  and  Sixth  Readers;  Swinton's  Sixth 
Reader;  Porter's  Exercises  in  Rhetorical  Readings;  Standard  Fijth  Reader  are  examples. 

*  Cleveland,  Compendium  of  English  Literature,  1848,  1874,  is  an  example. 
»  Cf.  pp.  20,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26. 


ENGLISH  131 

devoted  to  such  topics  as  articulation,  inflection,  accent,  emphasis, 
reading  verse,  voice,  and  gesture.  Short  selections  are  furnished  in 
connection  with  definitions  and  rules  to  provide  practice  in  oral 
reading  and  speaking.  For  example,  to  illustrate  the  use  of  the 
voice  in  pitch  and  compass  the  following  examples  are  given: 
high  pitch — "Gentlemen  may  cry  'Peace!  Peace!'  but  there  is  no 
peace."     The  following  is  given  as  an  example  of  medium  pitch: 

Under  the  spreading  chestnut  tree 
The  village  smithy  stands. 
The  smith  a  mighty  man  is  he 
With  large  and  sinewy  hands 
And  the  muscles  of  his  brawny  arms 
Are  strong  as  iron  bands. 

Examples  are  also  given  of  high  pitch,  slow  movement,  and  so  on. 
Four  pages  are  devoted  to  instruction  in  the  use  of  gestures.  This 
book  is  typical  in  this  respect  of  the  other  readers  in  use.  The 
Student'' s  Reader,  for  example,  devotes  fifteen  pages  to  general 
principles  of  oral  reading,  with  force,  pitch,  emphasis,  inflection, 
and  the  1  ke,  and  the  Independent  Fifth  Reader  devotes  attention 
to  similar  topics. 

The  emphasis  upon  declamatory  work,  as  has  been  pointed  out, 
is  shown  by  reference  to  the  courses  of  stud}'.  It  is  also  clear  that 
the  selections  yielded  themselves  readily  to  memorizing  and  oral 
delivery,  if,  indeed,  many  of  them  were  not  selected  with  that 
specific  end  in  view. 

Turning  now  to  the  character  of  the  selections  from  a  literary 
point  of  view,  we  find  an  attempt  to  furnish  a  wide  range  of  what 
was  considered  to  be  good  literature.  In  the  preface  of  the  Stu- 
dent's Reader  the  author  says : 

In  this  book  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  bring  together  as  much  and  as 
great  a  variety  of  choice  literature  as  a  book  of  this  sort  can  contain.  Great 
care  has  been  taken  to  secure  pieces  of  positive  merit  in  all  respects,  and  to  admit 
only  such.  This  book  is  not  intended  as  a  treatise  on  English  literature,  but  is 
intended  to  furnish  the  higher  classes  in  our  schools  with  a  class  of  literature  that 
is  at  once  instructive,  interesting,  and  good  taste. 

The  emphasis  upon  reading  is  indicated  by  the  following: 

It  is  called  the  Student's  Reader  from  the  desire  to  impress  the  idea  that  the 
Reading  Lesson  ought  to  be  studied. 

This  book  contains  419  pages,  of  which  325  are  given  to  reading 
material.  An  idea  of  the  average  length  of  these  selections  is 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  325  pages  contain  113  selections,  of 


132  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

less  than  three  pages  each.  The  character  of  the  selections  can  be 
judged  by  the  titles,  some  of  which  are  the  following:  "Expulsion  of 
the  Acadians,"  "The  Man  Without  a  Country,"  "The  Universal 
Prayer,"  "Washington,"  "The  Bridge  of  Sighs,"  "Scene  from 
Henry  IV,"  "Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  "The  Pied  Piper  of  Ham- 
lin," "Faithless  Sally  Brown,"  "Contest  with  a  Cannon,"  "The 
Tempted  Scholar,"  Cicero's  "Impeachment,"  "Thanatopsis," 
"Lycidas,"  "L'AUegro,"  "Alexander's  Feast,"  "Intimations  of 
Immortality." 

McGuffy's  Sixth  Reader  devoted  400  pages  to  150  selections 
representing  more  than  100  authors.  The  National  Speaker,  while 
intended  primarily  to  furnish  material  for  declamatory  work,  con- 
tains material  of  the  same  general  character  as  contained  in  the 
two  texts  cited  above.  This  book  devotes  200  pages  to  109  selec- 
tions. One  hundred  and  eight  pages  are  given  to  15  "dialogues, 
familiar  and  dramatic."  The  title  of  another  of  these  books  is 
Literary  Reader.^  This  book  has  about  400  pages  containing  179 
selections  and  representing  68  authors.  The  preface  contains  the 
following  statement : 

So  far  as  gradation  is  concerned,  this  book  is  intended  to  fill  the  place  of  the 
Sixth  Reader.  In  the  original  catalogue  of  the  common  schools,  literature  holds 
practically  but  a  homely  place,  but  public  sentiment  has  fortunately  changed 
touching  this  matter  within  a  few  years;  in  the  hope  of  further  establishing  it  in 
its  true  place  in  the  public  schools,  this  book  has  been  prepared. 

The  author  claims  the  book  to  be  uncommon  in  two  respects: 
(1)  in  the  introduction  of  a  liberal  representation  of  American 
literature;  and  (2)  because  of  the  use  of  the  writings  of  scientists. 
Referring  to  the  latter  he  says : 

This  feature  of  the  work  seems  to  make  a  not  undue  acknowledgment  of 
the  great  love  of  science  in  these  times  and  it  is  also  a  welcome  addition  to  the 
treasures  of  literature. 

It  seems  that  he  is  justified  in  the  claim  made  for  the  book  in  both 
particulars.  Other  compilers  gave  little  attention  to  American 
literature  and  practically  none  to  scientific  writings. 

As  has  been  said,  no  approximate  date  can  be  given  when  the 
emphasis  shifted  from  the  literature  itself  to  its  history.  From  the 
first,  more  or  less  attention  was  given  to  the  biography  of  authors, 
and  this  for  the  most  part  constituted  the  so-called  history  of  litera- 

*  Cathart,  George  R.,  Literary  Reader:  Typical  Selections  from  Some  of  the  Best  British  and  Ameri- 
can Authors  from  Shakespeare  to  the  Present  Time,  1875. 


ENGLISH  133 

ture.  Spaulding's  book^  is  an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  while  lists 
of  textbooks  show  that  it  was  used,  its  use  was  not  general.  The 
introductory  chapter  covers  twelve  pages  devoted  to  a  brief  dis- 
cussion of  the  four  periods  of  English  history  as  follows:  Roman 
period  to  449,  Anglo-Saxon  period  to  1069,  Middle  ages  to  1509, 
Modern  times  to  1852.  The  plan  of  the  book  divides  the  history 
of  English  literature  into  these  four  periods  and  representative 
authors,  of  each  period  were  selected.  For  example,  for  the  period 
ending  1509,  he  gives  short  selections  to  illustrate  the  various  types 
of  literature.  No  biographies  are  given  except  brief  statements  in 
footnotes.  The  book  is  devoted  chiefly  to  a  discussion  of  the  events 
of  the  period  and  to  brief  selections  of  literature  which  indicate  the 
spirit  of  the  times.  The  selections  chosen  are  largely  those  which 
are  directed  against  some  evil  practice.  The  book  undertakes  to 
interpret  the  social  and  political  life  of  each  period  of  English 
history. 

Another  type  of  texts,  the  one  in  more  common  use,  as  shown 
by  published  lists  of  textbooks,  emphasized  the  biography  of 
authors.  Some  of  the  readers  already  cited  contained  short  biog- 
raphies and  later  books,  purporting  to  be  histories  of  literature, 
laid  such  stress  upon  biography  that  comparatively  little  attention 
was  given  to  writings  of  the  authors.  Trimble's  Handbook  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  is  an  example.  In  this  book  more  space  is  devoted 
to  personal  biography  than  to  literature. 

In  referring  to  the  barrenness  of  the  work  both  in  rhetoric  and 
literature,  the  superintendent  of  the  Chicago  schools  in  his  report 
says: 

The  study  of  rhetoric  seems  comparatively  futile,  save  in  the  knowledge ' 
acquired  of  a  few  terms,  and  the  time  devoted  to  English  Literature  is  often 
expended  on  the  history  of  unimportant  and  forgotten  authorities  with  little 
appreciation  or  knowledge  of  real  literature.^ 

An  example  of  the  emphasis  placed  upon  the  historical  aspect 
of  the  subject  and  the  persistence  of  this  type  of  subject-matter  is 
shown  in  Halleck's  English  Literature?  This  book  contains  very 
meager  quotations  from  the  numerous  authors  in  explanation  of  the 
types  and  character  of  literature  produced  in  the  various  periods. 
The  biographies  of  more  than  one  hundred  authors  are  given  and  a 

1  Spaulding,  William,  The  History  of  English  Literature  with  an  Outline  of  the  Origin  and  Growth 
of  English  Literature,  1868. 

2  Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1883,  p.  62. 

»  Halleck,  Reuben  Post,  History  of  English  Literature,  1900. 


134  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

critical  analysis  made  of  their  writings  with,  as  said  before,  only 
meager  quotations  from  the  literature.  In  an  appendix  is  given  a 
"supplementary  list  of  minor  authors  and  their  chief  works." 
More  than  two  hundred  names  are  given  with  dates  of  birth  and 
death  of  each  and  the  titles  of  literary  productions. 

The  third  stage  is  marked  by  an  emphasis  upon  "classics." 
This  means  that  emphasis  was  shifted  from  the  writer  to  his  writings 
and  that  wholes  were  substituted  for  fragments  of  literary  produc- 
tions. No  date  can  be  fixed  for  the  beginning  of  this  movement, 
but  about  1885  marks  the  time  when  this  sort  of  material  came 
into  use  and  by  1890  its  use  was  quite  general.  The  older  kinds 
of  material,  however,  persisted,  particularly  the  historical  type, 
until  the  close  of  the  century. 

College  catalogs  in  their  entrance  requirements  and  the  printed 
courses  of  study  of  the  high  schools  show  clearly  the  growth  in 
importance  of  this  class  of  material  after  the  date  given  above. 
The  University  of  Illinois^  did  not  make  any  entrance  requirement 
in  literature  as  late  as  1892,  but  gave  notice  that  the  following  re- 
quirements must  be  met  in  1893: 

In  1893  longer  essays  will  be  required  (except  from  these  offering  Greek) 
upon  subjects  drawn  from  the  following  works:  Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar, 
Scott's  Martnion,  Webster's  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  Goldsmith's  Deserted 
Village,  Irving's  The  Sketch  Book,  or  one  year's  work  in  French  or  German  will  be 
accepted  instead  of  the  English  Literature  described. 

The  catalog  for  1892-93  contains  the  same  list.  For  1894  the 
following  list  was  required:  Shakespeare's  Merchant  of  Venice, 
Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Emerson's  American  Scholar,  Longfellow's 
Evangeline,  Macaulay's  Second  Essay  on  the  Earl  of  Chatham.  This 
statement  follows  the  list:  "Real  equivalents  for  any  of  these 
works  will  be  accepted."  It  is  clear  that,  up  to  this  time,  these 
masterpieces  were  used  only  as  a  basis  for  composition  work.  The 
catalog^  for  1895-96  makes  specific  requirements  as  follows: 

Each  candidate  is  expected  to  have  read  certain  assigned  masterpieces  and 
will  be  subjected  to  such  an  examination  as  will  determine  whether  he  has  done  so. 

It  will  be  observed  that  no  mention  is  made  of  requiring  an  essay' 
and  an  examination  is  substituted  therefore.  The  requirements 
in  English  literature  are  as  follows  and  change  from  year  to  year: 

1  Cf.  Catalog,  University  of  Illinois,  1892.    Entrance  requirements. 

*  The  catalog  specifies  that  candidates  will  be  required  to  write  an  essay  "correct  as  to  punctuation, 
etc."  but  does  not  indicate  the  nature  of  the  content. 

«  Cf.  Catalog,  University  0}  Illinois,  1895-96.    Entrance  requirements. 


ENGLISH  135 

1896,  Shakespeare's  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Defoe's  History 
of  the  Plague  in  London,  Irving's  Tales  of  a  Traveler,  Scott's  Wood- 
stock, Macaulay's  Essay  on  Milton,  Longfellow's  Evangeline,  and 
George  Eliot's  Silas  Marner;  1897,  Shakespeare's  As  You  Like  It, 
Defoe's  History  of  the  Plague  in  London,  Irving's  Tales  of  a  Traveller, 
Hawthorne's  Twice-Told  Tales,  Longfellow's  Evangeline,  and  George 
Eliot's  Silas  Marner;  1898,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  (Books  I  and  II), 
Pope's  Iliad  (Books  I  and  XXII),  "The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley 
Papers"  in  the  Spectator,  Goldsmith's  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield, 
Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner,  Southey's  Life  of  Nelson,  Carlyle's 
Essay  on  Burns,  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  Hawthorne's 
House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  lists  for  1896  and  1897  are  identical 
except  as  follows:  As  You  Like  It  is  substituted  for  A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  and  Twice-Told  Tales  for  Woodstock  and  Essay  on 
Milton.  The  list  for  1898  requires  nine  selections  as  against  six 
for  1897  and  seven  for  1896.  Other  institutions  made  similar 
although  not  identical  requirements.  DePauw  University  made 
the  following  announcement  in  the  catalog  for  1893-94:^ 

In  1894  and  thereafter  an  additional  semester's  work  will  be  required  in 
Composition  and  Rhetoric  with  written  exercises  in  capitalization,  punctuation, 
paragraph,  and  sentence  structure.  The  course  in  literature  will  include  the 
following  masterpieces  with  the  writing  of  papers  and  essays  on  subjects  drawn 
from  them  as  a  basis  of  criticism:  Scott's  Marmion,  Longfellow's  The  Courtship 
of  Miles  Standish,  Irving's  The  Sketch  Book,  Dickens'  David  Copperfield,  Defoe's 
History  of  the  Plague  in  London,  Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  George  Eliot's 
Silas  Marner,  and  Webster's  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  or  equivalent.' 

The  University  of  Indiana*  made  requirements  similar  to  those  of 
Illinois. 

To  what  extent  the  entrance  requirements  in  English  were 
influenced  by  what  was  actually  being  taught  in  the  high  schools 
is  not  easily  determined.  It  is  entirely  clear  that  some  high 
schools  were  offering  work  in  literature  consisting  of  material 
very  similar  to  the  entrance  requirements  above  cited  several 
years  before  the  higher  institutions  adopted  the  requirements. 
It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  the  agreement  on  the  part  of 
the  higher  institutions  in  the  general  plan  was  determined  somewhat 

•  Requirement  in  composition  is  as  follows:  The  candidate  will  be  required  to  write  two  biographies 
of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  words  each  as  a  test  of  his  ability  to  use  the  English  language. 

*  Cf.  Catalog,  DePauw  University,  1893-94.    Entrance  requirements. 

•  Three  semesters'  work  in  English  required  for  entrance  in  the  previous  catalog. 

*  a.  Catalog,  University  of  Indiana,  1895-96.    Entrance  requirements. 


136  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

by  what  the  high  schools  were  already  doing.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  details  of  entrance  requirements 
shows  that  the  work  was  not  standardized  by  the  high  schools  and 
that  the  higher  institutions  had  not  yet  worked  out  uniform 
requirements. 

When  we  turn  to  the  high  schools  for  information  concerning  the 
work  in  literature,  we  find  that  the  practice  of  substituting  classics 
more  generally  for  short  selections  antedates  the  requirements  of 
higher  institutions  in  this  regard.  The  courses  of  study^  of  Mil- 
waukee, Wisconsin,  as  early  as  1877  included  English  Classics. 
These  are,  however,  not  specified  and  no  information  is  given 
concerning  their  number  or  character.  An  outline  of  the  work  in 
English  in  the  Laporte,  Indiana,  high  school  (1883),  contains  the 
oUowing : 

Extracts  from  Irving,  Hawthorne,  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Holmes,  Lowell, 
Thoreau,  Emerson,  Bryant,  Poe,  Scott,  Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  Dickens, 
Thackeray,  Ruskin,  Macaulay,  and  Carlyle.  Preparation  of  short  biographical 
sketches  of  these  and  other  recent  writers.     Classification  of  authors  and  works. 

Collections  of  weighty  thoughts  and  beautiful  sayings Critical  reading 

of  one  of  Shakespeare's  plays  and  of  some  extracts  from  Bacon,  Milton,  Addison, 
Samuel  Johnson,  Hume  or  Gibbon,  and  Herbert  Spencer.  A  general  survey  of 
English  literature  in  short  lectures." 

It  will  be  observed  that  with  the  exception  of  one  play  from  Shake- 
speare the  work  consists  of  extracts  and  the  emphasis  upon  biog- 
raphy still  holds. 

The  printed  courses  of  study,  however,  for  the  period  1886-90 
show  conclusively  the  tendency  to  substitute  classics  for  extracts. 
The  following  statement  is  found  in  the  school  report  of  Lawrence, 
Kansas,  under  the  heading  English  Classics : 

The  following  course  of  supplementary  reading  is  outlined  for  the  pupils  of 
the  high  school,  with  a  desire  to  acquaint  them  with  standard  productions  and  to 
implant  in  their  minds  a  love  for  choice  literature.  Junior  class:  Lady  of  the 
Lake,  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  Miles  Standish,  Virgil's  Aeneid  (2  books),  Macbeth; 
Middle  class:  Snowbound,  Rasselas,  Julius  Caesar,  Evangeline,  Bacon's  Essays; 
Senior  class:  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  Merchant  of  Venice,  Paradise  Lost  (2  books).' 

Kankakee,  Illinois,  high  school  provided  the  following  list  in 
1890: 

First  year:  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  Thanatopsis,  Deserted  Village,  Gray's 
Elegy,  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope,  Merchant  of  Venice; 

1  Annual  Report  of  the  School  Board,  1877,  p.  Ixxvii. 

«  Calendar  of  the  Laporte  Public  Schools  for  1883-84,  pp.  18-19. 

•  Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1887,  p.  53. 


ENGLISH  137 

Second  year:  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  The  Sketch  Book,  Ancient  Mariner,  Tales  from 
Shakespeare,  Macaulay's  Warren  Hastings,  Dickens'  Christmas  Carol,  Julius 
Caesar;  Third  year:  "Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,"  Lycidas,  As  You  Like  It,  Paradise 
Lost  (Book  I),  Tennyson's  Two  Voices,  Round  About  Papers,  Henry  VIII;  Fourth 
year:  In  Memoriam,  The  Tempest,  Modern  Painters,  Macbeth,  Chaucer's  The 
Life  Squire's  Tale,  Hamlet} 

Other  schools^  during  this  period  offered  similar  lists.  Some  of 
these  are  extensive,  others  very  meager.  The  Grand  Rapids  list 
contains  thirty-three  titles  while  that  of  Richmond,  Indiana,  pre- 
sents but  two,  and  these  are  not  specified — being  simply  designated 
as  "two  of  Shakespeare's  plays."  The  ten  years  following  1890 
show  a  rapid  development  in  this  kind  of  work.  From  this  time 
on,  the  older  type  of  literature  declined  in  importance  and  a  list 
of  classics  became  a  part  of  the  English  work.  There  was  lack  of 
uniformity  both  in  the  number  and  character  of  the  classics  read 
but  this  kind  of  material  had  come  into  general  use.  College 
entrance  requirements  no  doubt  exerted  an  influence  in  the  direction 
of  securing  some  degree  of  uniformity,  but  even  these  lacked  uni- 
formity practically  until  the  close  of  the  century. 

The  following  will  show  the  relative  importance  of  some  of  the 
masterpieces  from  the  standpoint  of  frequency  of  occurrence  in  the 
lists  of  the  various  schools.^  The  ranking  in  the  order  named  of 
the  ten  highest  is  as  follows: 

1.  Merchant  of  Venice  6.  Macbeth 

2.  Julius  Caesar  7.  Lady  of  the  Lake 

3.  Bunker  Hill  Oration  8.  Hamlet 

4.  The  Sketch  Book  9.  Deserted  Village 
4.  Evangeline                                             10.  Gray's  Elegy 

4.  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  10.  Thanatopsis 

5.  Snowbound  10.  As  You  Like  It 

They  appear  in  the  reading  lists  of  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the 
schools  and  the  one  ranking  first  being  found  in  nearly  70  per  cent 
of  the  lists. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Shakespeare's  writings  constitute  five  out  of 
the  fourteen  holding  the  first,  second,  sixth,  eighth,  and  tenth  ranks, 
and  of  the  fourteen  listed,  eight  are  English  and  six  American. 

A  second  list  is  given  below.  These  titles  were  included  in  the 
reading  lists  of  not  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  schools  and  the 

>  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  1890,  p.  38. 

^  Geneseo,  Illinois,  Belvidere,  Illinois,  Evansville,  Indiana,  Fairbury,  Nebraska,  Grand  Rapids, 
Michigan,  Richmond,  Indiana,  as  shown  by  printed  courses  of  study. 

»  The  data  are  furnished  by  the  printed  courses  of  study  for  the  periods  1886-90,  1891-95,  and  1896- 
1900.     Cf.  Appendix,  Tables  F,  G,  and  H. 


138 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


range  is  as  low  as  10  per  cent  in  some  cases, 
in  the  order  of  frequency. 


The  arrangement  is 


1.  Miles  Standish 

2.  II  Penseroso 

2.  Paradise  Lost 

3.  L' Allegro 

3.  Lycidas 

4.  Ivanhoe 

4.  "Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Pa- 
pers"   from   the   Spectator 

4.  David  Copperfield 

4.  Silas  Marner 

5.  In  Memoriam 
5.  Enoch  Arden 
5.  Behavior 

5.  Marmion 


5.  Tales  of  the  Whi'e  Hills 
5.  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome 
5.  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream 
5.   Vicar  of  Wakefield 

5.  Iliad 

6.  Henry  VIII 

6.  Among  the  Hills 

6.  Cotter's  Saturday  Night 

6.  Chambered  Nautilus 

6.  Comus 

6.  Bryant's  Favorite  Poems 

6.  The  Princess 

6.  Saul 

6.  King  Lear 


A  third  list  contains  those  titles  that  are  found  in  less  than  10 
per  cent  of  the  reading  lists.  Many  of  these  are  not  found  except 
in  the  list  of  a  single  school.  The  purpose  of  this  list  is  to  show  the 
lack  of  uniformity  and  the  wide  range  of  material  used.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  arrange  the  titles  in  order  of  frequency. 

Idyls  of  the  King 
Shakespeare's   English  Histori- 
cal Plays 
The  Rape  of  the  Lock 
Middlemarch 
The  Task 
Essays  of  Elia 
The  Excursion 
Venice  Preserved 
English  Traits 
Ancient  Mariner 
Scenes  from  Clerical  Life 
Essay  on  Man 
Vanity  Fair 
Knight's  Tale 
Alexander's  Feast 
The  Spanish  Student 
Ladder  of  St.  Augustine 
The  Alhamhra  i 

House  of  Seven  Gables 
Representative  Men 
Essays  on  Character 
Circles 
Gifts 


Prisoner  of  Chilian 

Rasselas 

Last  of  the  Mohicans 

Warren  Hastings 

Christmas  Carol 

The  Tempest 

Culture 

Books  and  Libraries 

Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table 

Gettysburg  Speech 

Sesame  and  Lilies 

Macaulay's  Addison 

Childe  Harold 

The  Faerie  Queene 

Odyssey  (2  books) 

Flight  of  the  Tartars 

Carlyle's  Essay  on  Burns 

Aeneid 

Plutarch's  Lives 

Hiawatha 

Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse 

Adam  Bede 

Selections  from  the  Spectator 

Pickwick  Papers 


ENGLISH 


139 


Views  Afoot 

Bigelow  Papers 

The  Cathedral 

A  Few  Thoughts  for  Young  Men 

Entering  Life 
A  Few  Thoughts  on  the  Powers 

and  Duties  of  a  Woman 
Lotus  Eaters 
Rip  Van  Winkle 
To  a  Water  Fowl 
Poor  Richard's  Almanac 
Letters  of  Samuel  Mather 
Letters  to  Reverend  Lathrop 
Boston  Letters  to  Benjamin  Webb 
The  Plowman 
The  Iron  Gate 
The  Great  Stone  Face 
My  Visit  to  Niagara 
The  Ship  Builders 
The  Worship  of  Nature 
The  Pilgrim  Fathers 
Essays  on  Lincoln 
Boston  Hymn 
The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth 
The  Traveler 
To  a  Mouse 
To  a  Mountain 
For  A '  That 
Burke's  Speeches 
Faust 

Samson  Agonistes 
The  Divine  Comedy 
Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin 
Ben  Hur 
Bitter  Sweet 
Selections  from  Katrine 
Timothy  Titcomb's  Letters 
Bacon's  Essays 
Tales  from  Shakespeare 
Two  Voices 
Round  About  Papers 
Modern  Painters 
The  Squire's  Tale 
Romola 

Essay  on  Lord  Bacon 
Tom  Brown 
The  Newcomes 


Wild  Apples 

Abraham  Lincoln  (Lowell) 

Character  of  Washington 

The  Hunt  of  the  Deer 

Succession  of  Forest  Fires 

Selected  Essays  (Emerson) 

Adonais 

Reply  to  Hayne 

The  Whit  Murder  Trial 

Eulogy  on  Garfield 

Legends  of  New  England 

The  School  Boy 

Frederic  the  Great 

Compensation 

Books 

Songs  of  the  Cavalier 

Duke  of  Wellington 

Henry  VI 

Richard  II 

Works  of  Patrick  Henry 

Tale  of  Two  Cities 

Fifteen  Decisive  Battles 

Oliver  Twist 

Tales  of  a  Traveler 

Woodstock 

Essay  on  Milton 

History  of  the  London  Plague 

Twice  Told  Tales 

Speech  on  Conciliation 

Life  of  Samuel  Johnson 

Sohrab  and  Rustum 

The  Closing  Scene 

TJte  Fire  Worshippers 

Life  and  Death  of  Jason 

The  Pleasures  of  Hope 

Elaine 

Lady  of  Lyons 

Dream  of  Fair  Women 

Adams  and  Jefferson 

Othello 

Henry  VI 

Conduct  of  Life 

Chaucer's  Prologue 

Alcestes 

Intimations  of  Immortality 

Les  Mis&rables 

Buddha 

Pompei 


140 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Hypatia 

Tke  Voyage 

Westminster  Abbey 

Holmes'  Favorite  Poems 

My  Hunt  after  the  Captain 

Lowell's  Favorite  Poems 

Burns'  Select  Poems 

Fable  for  Critics 

Palamon  and  Arcite 

Macaulay's  Milton 

Reply  to  Hayne 

Pope's  Essay  on  Macaulay 

Sella 

Selections  from  Ruskin 

Selected  Poems  of  Wordsworth 

The  Coming  of  Arthur 

Guinivere 

The  Passing  of  Arthur 

Essay  on  Johnson 

Heroes  and  Hero  Worship 

Emerson's  Social  Aims 

Selections  from  Browning 

Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow 

Death  of  the  Flowers 


True  Stories  of  England 

The  Atomic  Theory 

Conservation  of  Energy 

The  Blind  Preacher 

Oratory  and  Oratory 

Old  Mortality 

Battle  of  Blenheim 

Marcella 

Social  and  Present  Day  Problems 

Sketch  of  Creation 

Homes  Without  Hands 

Prince  of  India 

Essay  on  Character 

Geraint  and  Enid 

History  of  Our  Own  Times 

Forms  of  Water 

Clincote  and  Time 

The  Atmosphere 

Robert  of  Sicily 

The  Arrow  and  the  Song 

The  Over  Soul 

Plain  Folks 

Prince  of  the  House  of  David 


Approximately  two  hundred  titles  are  contained  in  the  above  list. 
They  represent  a  wide  range  of  themes  and  for  the  most  part  they 
indicate  the  fragmentary  character  of  the  material  typical  of  the 
periods  preceding  1885.  Schools  differed  greatly  in  respect  to  this 
kind  of  subject-matter.  Some  offered  a  wide  range  of  it  and  others 
none  at  all  as  shown  by  the  published  courses  of  study.  It  is 
evident,  however,  that  it  occupied  an  important  place  in  English 
work  and  its  prevalence  continued  to  the  close  of  the  century. 

Two  practices  prevailed  in  the  use  of  classics.  One  was  that 
of  securing  a  wide  range  of  reading,  and  the  other  placed  the  empha- 
sis upon  a  critical  study  of  a  few  masterpieces.  Higher  institutions 
after  about  1895  began  to  publish  two  lists  of  requirements,  one 
for  "minute  and  critical  study,"  and  another  for  "general  reading 
and  composition  work."  In  1895  Indiana  University  published 
two  such  lists  as  a  part  of  the  entrance  requirements  in  English. 
The  language  used  raises  a  doubt  concerning  whether  the  work  was 
actually  required  for  entrance  or  merely  suggested  as  desirable. 
However,  it  may  have  been  that  the  lists  were  as  follows:  "For 
minute  and  critical  study" — Merchant  of  Venice,  L' Allegro,  II 
Penseroso,  Comus,  Lycidas,  and  Maculay's  Essay  on  Milton;  "for 


ENGLISH  141 

general  reading  and  composition  work" — Twelfth  Night,  Sketch 
Book,  Scott's  Abbot,  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  Evangeline,  and  Macau- 
lay's  Essay  on  Milton.^ 

The  University  of  Illinois  made  similar  requirements  or  sugges- 
tions in  1896.  The  list  "for  critical  study"  was  the  same  as  that  of 
Indiana  except  for  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Addison.  The  list  for 
"general  reading  and  composition  work"  contained  only  Evangeline 
and  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Milton.  The  others  were  as  follows: 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  The  History  of  the  Plague  in  London, 
Tales  of  a  Traveler,  Woodstock,  and  Silas  Marner.^ 

Some  of  the  high  schools  provide  two  lists,  making  in  a  general 
way  the  same  distinction  as  indicated  above.  In  1900,  Emporia, 
Kansas,'  published  two  such  lists — one  designated  to  be  studied  in 
class,  the  other  at  home.  Lawrence,  Kansas  (1891),  designates  one 
classic  to  be  read  critically  in  class  and  three  to  be  read  outside  of 
school,  "the  latter  to  be  tested  by  essays  on  same."*  In  1893  the 
part  of  the  report  devoted  to  English  contains  the  following  state- 
ment: 

To  familiarize  the  pupils  with  the  treasures  of  English  literature  and  to 
develop  thought  power,  they  are  given  for  outside  work  a  list  of  books  on  various 
lines  of  thought,  which  are  required  to  be  read  carefully.  Reports  are  frequently 
made  and  questions  answered  concerning  meaning,  etc.,  of  authors.* 

The  foregoing  represents  the  character  of  the  work  done  in  a 
considerable  number  of  the  high  schools.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  a  wide  range  of  reading  was  neither  sought  nor  secured  in 
many  of  the  schools.  In  the  first  place,  the  lists  were  meager  and 
comparatively  little  time  was  devoted  to  literature.  For  example 
the  Belvidere,  Illinois,  list  for  1880  contains  but  six  titles  as  follows: 
Sketch  Book,  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Merchant  of  Venice,  Thanatopsis, 
Bunker  Hill  Oration,  and  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal.^  The  point  of 
view  is  also  clearly  indicated  thus: 

These  works  are  to  be  studied  critically.  Unusual  expressions,  figures  of 
speech,  interesting  words  are  all  to  receive  careful  attention. 

Evansville,  Indiana,  furnishes  another  example  of  emphasis  upon 
the  critical  type  of  work.     The  list  is  somewhat  more  extended 

1  Of.  Catalog,  University  of  Indiana,  1894-95.     Entrance  requirements. 

2  Cf.  Catalog,  University  oj  Illinois,  1895-96.     Entrance  requirements. 
»  Cf.  Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1900,  pp.  97-98. 

*  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1890-91,  p.  301. 
'  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1893,  p.  131. 

•  Cf.  Course  of  Study  and  Regulations  of  tlie  Public  Schools,  1889-90,  p.  80. 


142  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

than  that  of  Belvidere,  but  the  selections  are  all  of  the  literary  type 
in  the  narrow  sense.  The  statement  following  the  list  indicates  the 
point  of  view : 

To  be  critically  read  in  class  with  attention  given  to  the  formation  of  words, 
construction  of  sentences,  expressions  of  thought,  characteristics  of  style,  and 
figures  of  rhetoric  used  by  the  author.' 

In  summary  it  may  be  said  that  the  emphasis  upon  classics 
dates  from  about  1885.  The  list  of  fourteen  titles  shows  the  ones 
which  were  in  most  common  use,  and  the  second  list  indicates 
approximately  thirty  titles  of  those  used  in  from  10  to  25  per  cent 
of  the  schools.  The  third  list  shows  the  lack  of  uniformity  because 
none  of  these  were  taught  in  10  per  cent  of  the  schools  and  many  of 
them  only  in  a  single  school.  The  increasing  emphasis  upon  the 
larger  wholes  of  literature  is  evident.  Nevertheless,  the  practice  of 
using  numerous  shorter  selections  discussed  on  pages  137-140  con- 
tinued to  the  close  of  the  century.  Two  aims  were  attempted  in 
teaching  literature,  indicated  by  the  emphasis  upon  "critical  study" 
and  "general  reading  and  composition  work."  It  is  clear,  however, 
that  the  first  aim  mentioned  received  the  most  attention  and  that 
even  the  composition  work  was  dominated  by  this  aim,  resulting 
in  an  emphasis  upon  grammatical,  rhetorical,  and  literary  forms 
rather  than  upon  content. 

The  discussion  of  composition  has  been  deferred  until  last 
because  of  its  dependence  upon,  and  vital  relation  to,  the  other 
English  subjects.  Before  entering  upon  the  consideration  of  this, 
the  increasing  attention  given  to  the  subject  will  be  noted. 

The  subject  was  given  a  place  in  the  curriculum  of  the  Boston 
High  School  at  the  beginning  of  1821  and  was  taught  more  or 
less  in  high  schools  throughout  the  period  under  consideration. 
Not  until  near  the  close  of  the  century,  however,  did  it  receive  the 
attention  at  all  approximating  that  which  it  now  receives.  Pre- 
vious to  about  1890  it  was  not  generally  listed  in  the  course  of  study, 
but  included  in  a  footnote  along  with  declamation,  select  reading, 
music,  and  other  general  exercises.^  There  were  occasional  excep- 
tions^ to  this  but  the  general  practice  was  as  stated.  The  amount 
of  time  given  to  the  subject  cannot  be  determined  from  the  general 
statement  found  in  the  footnotes  that  composition  continues 
throughout  the  course.^    The  fact,  however,  that  it  was  listed  with 

>  Course  of  Study,  1888. 

»  Cf.  pp.  20,  21,  22,  23,  25,  26,  28,  31,  33. 

»  Cf.  p.  24.      «Cf.  pp.  21,  22,  28,  31,  33. 


ENGLISH  143 

Other  general  exercises  indicates  clearly  that  it  did  not  receive  the 
attention  given  to  other  subjects.  Then  in  some  cases  the  infre- 
quent character  of  the  work  is  plainly  indicated  by  such  statements 
as  the  following:  "Declamation  and  composition  semi-monthly";^ 
"Exercises  in  declamation  and  composition  weekly  throughout  the 
Course";^  "Beginning  with  the  third  year  original  addresses  and 
essays  will  be  required  once  in  three  weeks  to  the  end  of  the 
Course."'  In  the  later  years  of  the  period  increase  of  time  is 
implied  from  the  fact  that  the  subject  is  given  a  place  in  the  body 
of  the  curriculum.^  It  is  also  shown  by  the  further  fact  that  one 
and  two  days  per  week  were  assigned  to  the  work  in  some  schools.® 
Further  evidence  of  increased  attention  being  given  to  the  subject 
is  found  in  the  outlines  in  English  work  published  in  the  school 
reports  and  in  the  college  entrance  requirements. 

The  composition  work,  not  only  in  the  early  schools,  but  also 
at  a  later  date,  was  no  doubt  of  an  informal  sort  in  connection  with 
general  exercise.  Literary  societies  were  maintained  and  the 
literary  part  of  the  programs  was  made  up  of  declamations  and 
compositions  or  essays.  "Rhetorical  exercises  occur  every  Friday 
during  the  fall  and  winter  terms."®  "Four  rhetorical  exercises 
each  term  to  be  required  of  each  pupil. "^  "Literary  exercises 
monthly,"  was  a  requirement  in  the  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  high  school 
in  1876.^  The  Alliance,  Nebraska,  high  school  made  the  following 
requirement  in  1890:  "Each  member  of  the  third-year  class  will 
be  required  to  write  at  least  three  essays  on  subjects  chosen  by  the 
leader."  Madison,  Wisconsin,  required  the  "delivery  of  competi- 
tive essays  or  orations  at  morning  exercises  or  on  graduation  day."' 
The  Canal  Fulton,  Ohio  Annual  School  Report,  1892,  contains  the 
following  statement:  "During  the  three  years  in  the  high  school, 
literary  exercises  consisting  of  recitations,  essays,  and  debates  are 
required."  Fredonia,  Kansas  (1896),  required  "composition  on 
various  subjects  during  high-school  work." 

It  is  evident  that  composition  work  as  indicated  above  was  of  an 
informal  sort  and  that  topics  were  derived  from  the  reading  and 

» Of.  p.  20. 
«Cf.  p.  21. 
»  Cf.  p.  22. 

«Cf.  pp.  27,  28,  29,  34. 
»  Cf.  pp.  34,  40.    , 

•  Annual  Catalog  of  the  PtMic  Schools,  Appleton,  Wisconsin,  1886-87,  p.  19. 
'  Annual  Report  oj  Public  Schools,  Napoleon,  Ohio,  1888,  p.  29. 

•  Rules  and  Regulations,  p.  13. 

•  Rules,  Regulations,  and  Course  of  Study,  1896.  p.  33. 


144  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

experience  of  the  pupils.  The  work  was  carried  on  in  connection 
with  Hterary  society  work,  opening  exercises,  Friday  afternoon 
programs,  and  commencement  exercises.  A  comparatively  large 
place  was  given  to  select  reading  and  declamations,  and  training  in 
oral  expression  no  doubt  received  more  attention  than  work  in 
written  composition. 

Some  attention  was  necessarily  paid  to  the  technique  of  the  work 
in  the  earlier  years,  but  the  formal  side  of  composition  was  a  later 
development.  This  earlier  practice  was  to  regard  composition 
only  in  its  relation  to  grammar,  and  the  emphasis  upon  this  phase 
of  the  work  continued  to  the  close  of  the  century.^  The  formal 
character  of  the  work  in  grammar  has  already  been  pointed  out 
and  in  the  earlier  years  composition  was  evidently  regarded  chiefly 
as  a  means  of  securing  drill  in  the  work  in  grammar.  Textbooks 
show  this  both  in  the  titles  and  in  the  exercises  designated  as 
composition.  One  of  the  later  books^  devoted  forty  pages  to  com- 
position work,  and  while  some  attention  is  given  to  practical  forms 
of  composition,  the  chief  emphasis  even  in  the  latest  edition  (1896) 
is  upon  grammatical  forms.  College  entrance  requirements  in 
English  as  late  as  1893  show  clearly  the  survival  of  this  earlier 
practice. 

The  next  phase  in  the  development  of  formal  work  in  composi- 
tion is  marked  by  a  shift  of  attention  from  grammar  to  rhetoric. 
It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  older  texts  which  presented  the 
logical  aspect  of  the  subject  were  superseded  about  1880  by  other 
texts  emphasizing  figures  of  speech,  literary  forms,  and  the  like. 
This  change  in  character  of  subject-matter  in  rhetoric  was  accom- 
panied by  use  of  composition  exercises  as  a  means  of  drill  in  rhetori- 
cal forms.  In  the  preface  of  one  of  these  books^  is  the  following 
statement : 

The  cry  that  comes  up  from  teachers  on  all  sides  is  that  they  need  something 
more  in  the  text  books,  something  that  after  the  principles  of  the  sciences  have 
been  followed  and  clearly  unfolded  shall  come  on  immediately  to  mark  out  work 
for  the  pupil  to  do  in  illustration  of  what  he  has  learned  and  shall  exact  the 
doing  of  it,  not  in  the  recitation  room,  but  in  preparation  for  it,  as  appertaining 
to  his  lesson. 

The  third  stage  in  the  development  of  composition  work  is 
marked  by  the  emphasis  upon  its  relation   to  literature.     The 

>  Carpenter,  G.  R.,  Baker,  E.  T.,  and  Scott,  F.  N.,  Teaching  of  English  Composition,  1903,  p.  230' 

»  Reed,  Alonzo,  and  Kellogg,  Brainaed,  Higher  Lessons  in  English,  1877,  1885,  1896. 

»  Kellogg,  Brainard,  A  Text-Book  in  Rhetoric  with  Exhaustive  Practice  in  Composition,  1880.      This 

book  and  the  later  edition  of  1892  were  widely  used  as  shown  by  lists  of  textbooks  published  in  school 

reports. 


ENGLISH  145 

classics  served  two  purposes — furnished  themes  and  provided 
models  of  style.  The  amount  of  work  increased  and  the  pupils 
were  given  some  practice  in  writing  themes  of  some  length  instead 
of  writing  single  sentences  solely  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the 
application  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical  rules.  It  is  apparent, 
nevertheless,  that  the  older  forms  of  composition  continued  to 
predominate  to  the  close  of  the  century. 

One  of  the  evidences  of  this  is  the  emphasis  already  pointed  out 
in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  literature,  upon  "critical  and 
minute"  study  of  classics.  Since  this  point  of  view  prevailed  in 
the  study  of  literature,  it  would  naturally  control  in  composition 
work.  There  is  also  some  direct  evidence  available.  The  Fort 
Scott,  Kansas,  report  contains  the  following  statement: 

Each  term's  work  in  English  requires  nine  essays  upon  subjects  specified 
by  the  instructors  bearing  upon  the  work  in  classics. ^ 

It  is  clear  that  this  had  reference  to  the  classics  "to  be  studied 
critically  in  class"  and  not  those  for  general  reading  since  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  latter  was  tested  by  examinations  "at  stated  times,  "^ 
An  explanation  is  also  given  of  the  character  of  the  work  to  be  done 
in  class  which  also  indicates  the  character  of  the  composition  work. 
The  explanation  is  as  follows: 

The  phrase  to  be  studied  critically  in  class  means  careful  syntactical  and 
etymological  analysis  in  addition  to  style,  thought,  and  literary  value.  The 
language  of  poetical  structures  must  be  paraphrased,  the  author's  meaning  fully 
brought  out,  the  mechanical  forms  explained,  and  choice  extracts  memorized.' 

Other  courses  of  study  indicate  the  same  character  of  work  in 
composition.  Entrance  requirements  also  show  the  formal  charac- 
ter of  the  work  and  the  survival  of  the  old  emphasis  upon  gram- 
matical forms.  DePauw  University  made  the  following  require- 
ment in  1893: 

In  1894  and  thereafter  an  additional  semester's  work  will  be  required  in 
Composition  and  Rhetoric  with  written  exercises  in  capitalization,  punctuation, 
paragraph,  and  sentence  structure.* 

The  University  of  Illinois  in  1895  states  the  following  requirement 
under  the  caption  "Composition  and  Rhetoric": 

Correct  spelling,  capitalization,  paragraphing,  idioms,  definitions,  and 
proper  use  of  rhetorical  figures.* 

This  statement  is  repeated  for  1899-1900. 

»  Annuta  Report,  Ft.  Scott  City  Schools,  1892,  p.  63. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  64. 
» Ibid. 

*  Cf.  Catalog,  DePauw  University,  1893.    Entrance  requirements. 

*  Cf.  Catalog,  University  oj  Illinois,  189S.    Entrance  requirements. 


146  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

In  spite  of  increase  of  attention  given  to  composition  and  the 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  work  already  indicated,  it  is  apparent 
that  the  emphasis  upon  grammatical  and  rhetorical  forms  con- 
tinued. The  growth  in  importance  of  literature,  and  particularly 
the  introduction  of  classics,  stimulated  the  work  in  composition. 
The  prevalence,  however,  of  the  severely  critical  point  of  view  of 
teaching  literature  resulted  in  narrowing  composition  work  to  a 
mere  drill  in  the  use  of  grammatical,  rhetorical,  and  literary  forms. 
The  larger  aims  and  purposes  of  composition,  through  correlation 
with  other  school  subjects  and  extra-school  interests  and  activities, 
and  the  technique  of  working  this  out,  belong  to  a  later  period  in  its 
development.  This  is  foreshadowed  somewhat  by  the  textbooks 
published  at  the  very  close  of  the  century. 

Scott  and  Denney's  book^  is  one  of  these.  The  authors  state  in 
the  preface  the  following  purposes  of  the  book: 

First,  it  is  desirable  that  a  clearer  union  than  has  prevailed  hitherto  be 
brought  about  between  secondary  composition  and  secondary  rhetoric. 

The  rhetoric  referred  to  has  already  been  explained  on  pp.  126-128: 

Second,  it  is  desirable  in  secondary  composition  that  greater  use  be  made 

of  the  paragraph  than  has  hitherto  been  done  in  the  majority  of  schools ^ 

A  third  idea  underlying  the  work  is  the  idea  of  growth.  A  composition  is  regarded 
not  as  a  dead  form,  to  be  analyzed  into  its  component  parts,  but  a  living  product 

of  an  active,  creative  mind In  working  out  these  ideas,  care  has  been 

taken  to  provide  illustrative  material  of  a  kind  that  should  be  thought-provoking, 
interesting,  and  valuable  in  itself,  but  not  too  far  above  the  standard  of  literary 
practice,  material  which  the  pupil  can  appreciate  readily  and  can  turn  to  account 

at  once  in  his  own  written  work Care  has  also  been  taken  in  the  way  the 

text  is  stated,  as  well  as  in  the  way  the  exercises  are  presented,  to  suggest  that 
the  study  is  pursued  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  constructive  rather  than  critical 
power  and  the  authors  venture  to  advise  that  until  chapter  iv  is  reached,  minute 
criticism  be  avoided;  let  criticisms  be  made  solely  with  reference  to  the  matter 
treated  in  the  current  lesson,  and  to  bad  English  that  may  be  used  by  the  pupil. 

The  book  exphasizes  the  composition  as  a  whole  and  abounds  in 
suggestive  material  and  in  constructive  directions  for  writing. 
It  differs  radically  from  the  older  critical  type  of  work  which  em- 
phasized grammatical  and  rhetorical  forms.  As  has  been  said  this 
type  of  work  belongs  rather  to  the  years  following  the  close  of  the 
period. 

>  Scott,  F.  N.,  and  Denney,  J.  V.,  Composition-Rhetoric,  1897. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  SCIENCES 

This  field  presents  a  rather  confused  situation  as  regards  the 
subject-matter  of  the  various  subjects.  They  differ  widely  as  to 
amounts  and  character  of  change  and  there  is  much  overlapping 
due  to  different  points  of  view  presented  by  textbooks  and  the 
continued  use  of  old  textbooks  in  some  schools  when  new  books 
of  a  different  type  had  been  introduced  in  other  schools.  In  spite 
of  this  confusion,  however,  changes  in  subject-matter  in  most  of 
the  science  subjects  is  rather  marked  and  these  different  types  of 
material  fall  into  periods  more  or  less  clearly  defined. 

It  has  been  shown  in  Table  XIX  that  the  average  time  devoted 
to  this  field  remained  practically  the  same  comparing  the  period 
1860-65  with  that  of  1896-1900.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  at 
the  beginning  the  average  exceeded  the  mode  by  approximately 
one-fourth  year  while  at  the  close  they  were  three  and  one-eighth 
years  respectively.  This  indicates  that  greater  uniformity  pre- 
vailed in  the  later  years,  although  there  were,  no  doubt,  many 
small  schools  that  gave  comparatively  little  attention  to  the  science 
subjects.  Table  XIX,  furthermore,  shows  that  some  of  the  sub- 
jects decline  in  importance  and  this  means,  of  course,  that  more 
attention  was  given  to  other  subjects  in  this  field. 

Taking  the  schools  as  a  whole  then,  and  the  field  as  a  whole, 
the  first  way  in  which  science  instruction  changed  was  in  this  shift 
of  attention  from  some  of  the  subjects  to  others.  Table  X  should 
not  be  interpreted  literally  in  this  regard,  but  it  is  clear,  neverthe- 
less, that  a  much  smaller  percentage  of  schools  was  offering  geology 
and  astronomy  in  1900  than  in  1865,  and  that  more  attention  was 
being  given  to  the  biological  sciences,  and  also,  through  increase  of 
time,  to  physics. 

The  most  important  changes  in  subject-matter  were  due  to  the 
various  aims  or  points  of  view  which  determined  the  selection  of 
material  and  its  organization,  and  the  emphases  employed  in  teach- 
ing. As  has  been  said,  there  was  considerable  confusion  in  this 
regard  and  it  is  only  by  a  careful  study  of  the  aims  set  forth  in 
school  reports  and  in  the  prefaces  of  texts  and,  most  of  all,  an 
analysis  of  the  subject-matter  itself,  that  one  is  able  to  arrive  at 

147 


148  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

anything  like  a  correct  interpretation  of  the  character  of  instruction 
given.     Three  aims  or  points  of  view  are  clearly  revealed, 

1.  The  religious  aim,  which  survived  from  earlier  schools,  is 
still  evident  in  1860.  This  was  apparently  not  very  important  but 
references  are  made  to  it  in  the  prefaces  of  textbooks,  and  this 
practice  survived  almost  to  the  close  of  the  century.  The  aim  is 
also  revealed  by  the  subject-matter  in  an  occasional  text.^ 

2.  An  aim  far  more  influential  than  the  religious  one  was  the 
knowledge  aim.  This  really  represented  two  points  of  view.  The 
first  of  these  emphasized  the  value  of  knowledge  as  such — truth 
for  truth's  sake — and  to  the  end  that  the  learner  might  be  regarded 
as  an  intelligent  person.^  As  one  author^  phrased  it  in  reference 
to  the  text,  in  the  preface: 

It  includes  only  that  which  every  well-informed  person  ought  to  know  of 
the  subject. 

The  other  point  of  view  emphasized  the  importance  of  science 
from  the  standpoint  of  its  practical  utility  as  distinguished  from  a 
knowledge  which  merely  contributed  to  one's  general  intelligence. 
The  distinction  was  not  always  clear  in  the  statement  of  aims,  and 
some  of  the  authors  who  claimed  the  twofold  aim  failed  to  empha- 
size the  so-called  practical  aspect  in  the  subject-matter  itself.* 
Steele's  texts,^  throughout,  emphasized  more  or  less  the  latter 
viewpoint. 

3.  The  third  viewpoint,  the  controlling  one,  particularly 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  period,  was  that  of  mental  discipline. 
Whatever  else  the  author  claimed  as  the  aim  of  teaching  science, 
he  only  infrequently  failed  to  state  that  discipline  was  one  of  the 
aims,  if,  indeed,  not  the  chief  one.  Each  of  these  viewpoints  will 
be  discussed  in  detail  in  connection  with  the  treatment  of  the 
various  science  subjects. 

1.      THE  BIOLOGICAL  SCIENCES 

Natural  history,  as  shown  by  Table  X,  occupied  a  relatively 
important  place  in  the  curriculum  during  the  period  1860-65.  This 
is  followed  by  a  decline  and  final  disappearance  of  the  subject  from 
the    high    school.     The    subject-matter,    however,    continued    as 

1  Hitchcock,  Edward,  and  Hitchcock,  Edward,  Jr.,  Elementary  Physiology,  1860,  pp.  420-32. 

'  Hooker,  Washington,  Natural  History  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Families,  1860. 

»  Hooker,  Washington,  Chemistry,  1863. 

*  Ibid. 

'  A  Series  of  Science  Texts  by  J.  Dorman  Steele. 


THE  SCIENCES  -  149 

biology  and  more  particularly  as  zoology.  The  author  of  one  of 
the  texts^  in  use  states  in  the  preface  the  aims  in  teaching  the 
subject : 

First  this  study  has  a  practical  bearing  upon  many  of  the  most  valuable  and 
extensive  occupations  of  man — agriculture,  horticulture,  etc. 

He  further  says: 

The  practical  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  Natural  History  or, 
indeed,  any  of  the  natural  sciences,  is  the  discipline  which  it  gives  the  mental 
powers.  It  develops  the  perceptive  and  reasoning  powers  together  thus  forming 
that  habit  of  intelligent  observation  which  marks  the  possessor,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  as  a  person  of  extensive  information,  and  is  an  essential  element  of  success 
in  almost  any  pursuit  in  which  he  may  engage. 

In  spite  of  the  emphasis  which  he  placed  in  the  preface  upon 
the  practical  value  of  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  its  relation  to 
agriculture  and  horticulture,  the  book  itself  gives  scant  attention 
to  this  phase  of  the  subject.  The  first  chapter  is  devoted  to  a 
summarized  discussion  of  the  classification  of  ani  mals.  Then  a 
more  detailed  discussion  is  given  of  quadrupeds,  rodents,  ruminants, 
etc. ;  birds  of  prey,  scratchers,  wading  and  swimming  birds;  reptiles, 
fishes,  and  insects  of  all  sorts  and  descriptions.  In  fact,  a  large 
section  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  insects.  The  text  as  a  whole  is 
descriptive  of  the  various  types  of  animal  life,  the  descriptions 
dealing  chiefly  with  the  physical  characteristics  of  animals  although 
some  attention  is  paid  to  their  habits  of  life.  The  emphasis  upon 
the  knowledge  aspect  of  the  subject  without  much  reference  to  its 
"practical  bearing  upon  the  occupations  of  man"  is  shown  clearly 
not  only  by  the  contents  but  by  the  lists  of  questions  provided  at 
the  close  of  each  chapter. 

Another  book^  of  this  same  period  was  similar  in  many  respects 
to  Hooker's  text.  It  is,  however,  simpler  in  content  and  method 
of  treatment  and  places  somewhat  less  emphasis  upon  anatomical 
structure  and  classification.  The  following  statement  in  the  pre- 
face is  a  fair  characterization  of  the  book : 

Upon  the  whole,  the  general  design  of  this  publication  is  to  convey  to  the 
minds  of  youth,  and  of  such  as  may  have  paid  little  attention  to  the  study  of 
nature,  a  species  of  knowledge  which  is  not  difficult  to  acquire.  The  knowledge 
will  be  a  perpetual  and  inexhaustible  source  of  many  pleasures;  it  will  afford 
innocent  and  virtuous  amusement,  and  will  occupy  agreeably  the  leisure  or 
vacant  hours  of  life. 

1  Hooker,  Washington,  Natural  History  for  lite  Use  of  Schools  and  Families,  1860,  p.  211. 
'  Ware.  John,  Physiology  of  Natural  History  1860. 


150  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

This  book  like  the  other  one  introduces  the  subject  by  means  of 
a  summarized  classification  of  animals  from  the  standpoint  of 
anatomical  structure  but  does  not  continue  the  emphasis.  Atten- 
tion soon  shifts  to  supposed  or  real  characteristics  of  the  different 
types  of  animal  life.  The  author  discusses  modes  of  communica- 
tion, education  of  the  senses,  reproduction,  coverings  of  animals, 
their  migrations,  and  habitations.  In  their  relations  to  man  he 
discusses  their  education  and  domestication  and  gives  interesting 
and  naive  accounts  of  what  he  calls  the  artifices  of  animals. 
These  accounts  are  mostly  of  the  "we  are  told"  sort,  and  while 
interesting  are  probably  not  true.  His  chapter  on  the  mental 
constitution  of  animals,  their  instincts,  and  intelligence,  is  on  the 
same  plane  as  the  "we  are  told"  sort  of  stories.  The  concluding 
chapter  is  devoted  to  the  religious  value  of  scientific  knowledge. 
As  has  been  said,  this  subject,  as  such,  declined  and  was  finally 
dropped  from  the  curriculum  and  changes  in  subject-matter  will 
be  discussed  in  connection  with  zoology. 

The  subject-matter  of  zoology  roughly  divided  itself  into  four 
periods.  In  the  earlier  years  the  material  was  of  the  same  general 
character  as  that  already  described  in  the  discussion  connected  with 
natural  history.  The  tendency,  however,  was  toward  the  more 
formal  aspect  of  the  subject  and  the  old  type  of  material  finally 
disappears.  In  the  second  stage,  comparative  anatomy  was  made 
the  basis  of  the  work  and  anatomical  structure  and  the  classification 
of  animals  received  the  emphasis  of  attention.  This  point  of  view 
was  evident  even  in  the  earlier  books.  One^  of  these  shows  very 
clearly  this  emphasis.  It  abounded  in  technical  terms  and  gave 
extensive  and  minute  classifications.  Anatomical  structure  re- 
ceived a  large  share  of  attention  to  the  exclusion  practically  of 
habits  of  life  and  general  characteristics  of  animals.  Packard's 
text'^  is  an  example  of  the  emphasis  upon  anatomical  structure. 
Quotations  from  the  prefaces  of  the  various  editions  will  indicate 
the  point  of  view  and  method  of  treatment.  In  the  preface  of  the 
first  edition  the  author  says: 

Before  taking  up  the  book  each  member  of  the  class  should  be  required  to 
examine  a  fish  .  .  .  . ;  the  pupil  should  draw  it  with  all  the  fins  expanded ;  then, 
with  the  aid  of  directions  on  pages  154-57,  by  means  of  a  small  scalpel,  forceps, 
and  scissors,  the  student  should  dissect  the  fish,  drawing  the  heart,  stomach,  etc., 

»  Chambers,  Elements  of  ZoSlogy  or  Natural  History  of  Animals.  Edited  by  D.  M.  Reese,  M.D., 
1866. 

»  Packard,  A.  S.,  Zodlogy,  1883.     Revised  in  1885,  1886,  1892. 


THE  SCIENCES  151 

and  a  transverse  section;  a  preparation  of  the  brain  can  be  easily  made  with  the 
aid  of  a  competent  teacher.  Having  thus  obtained  some  notion  of  the  structure 
of  a  common  vertebrate  animal  as  a  basis  of  comparison,  the  class  can  begin  to 
study  the  book;  meanwhile,  once  or  twice  a  week,  if  not  oftener,  taking  a  labora- 
tory lesson,  drawing,  and  dissecting  a  star- fish,  clam,  or  fresh  water  mussel;  a 
lobster  or  crayfish;  a  horseshoe  crab,  locust  or  grasshopper;  and  finally  a  fish, 
frog,  and  cat.  A  small  collection  of  corals,  shells,  and  a  few  dried  or  alcoholic 
insects  and  skeletons  of  a  fish,  frog,  reptile,  bird,  and  cat  should  also  be  examined 
and  referred  to  constantly  in  using  this  or  any  other  textbook.  In  this  way  and 
with  an  occasional  field  excursion  after  living  animals,  the  study  of  zoology  can 
be  made  of  the  highest  interest  and  value,  calling  out  both  the  observing  and 
reflective  faculties. 

The  preface  to  the  edition  of  1885  shows  the  importance  attached 
to  those  things  which  could  be  of  interest  only  to  the  specialist. 

The  most  important  discovery  made  since  this  book  was  published  is  that 
the  two  lowest  mammals,  i.e.,  the  duckbill  and  the  Echidna,  both  lay  eggs;  .  .  .  . 
nervous  system  of  the  Echinodcrnis  has  been  found  to  consist  of  a  delicate  sheet 
lying  under  the  integument. 

The  edition  of  the  next  year  calls  attention  to  the  following: 

The  Tunicates  are  placed  in  the  sub-kingdoms  as  the  Vertebrates;  the 
Merostomata  and  Trilobites  are  regarded  together,  forming  a  class  of  Anthropoda 
called  Podostomata;  the  sub-kingdom  Anthropoda  is  subdivided  into  six  classes; 
the  Molacopoda,  Myriopoda,  Arachnida  and  Insecta  being  regarded  as  classes, 
instead  of  sub-classes  as  in  the  former  edition.  The  orders  of  insects  have  been 
increased  from  eight  to  sixteen. 

The  various  editions  of  the  text  itself  show  the  same  technical 
classificatory  treatment  as  indicated  by  the  prefaces.  Anatomical 
structure  is  described  in  detail  and  the  method  suggested  in  the 
preface  of  the  edition  of  1883  indicates  the  importance  placed  upon 
dissection. 

The  third  stage  is  in  reality  a  broadening  of  the  work  of  the 
preceding  stage.  Anatomical  structure  still  remained  the  basis 
of  the  work  but  the  morphological  point  of  view  was  emphasized. 
This  type  of  work  placed  much  stress  upon  the  lower  forms  of 
animal  life  and  upon  laboratory  work.  The  amoeba,  sponge, 
Hydra,  earthworm,  mussel,  frog,  and  the  like  received  emphasis 
to  an  almost  entire  neglect  of  the  higher  forms  commonly  found  in 
the  older  books.  Some  of  the  texts  emphasized  this  phase  of  the 
subject  to  such  an  extent  that  the  courses  provided  were  more 
truly  in  animal  and  plant  morphology  than  biology  in  the  broader 
sense.     Boyer's  Elementary  Biology^  is  an  example  of  this  type  of 

1  BOYER,  F.  R.,  A  Laboratory  Manual  in  Biology:  An  Inductive  Study  in  Animal  and  Plant  Mor- 
phology, 1894. 


152  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

book.  The  disciplinary  point  of  view  prevailed  as  shown  by  the 
following  quotation  from  the  preface : 

The  aim  is  to  develop  rather  than  to  inform;  hence  the  laboratory  method 
is  more  important  than  the  information  involved.  Accuracy  in  observation  is  a 
prerequisite  to  accuracy  and  clearness  in  description  or  statement,  as  well  as  to 
logical  inference  or  conclusion. 

When  one  compares  the  material  in  this  type  of  text  with  that  of 
the  earlier  years  of  the  period  the  contrast  is  very  striking.  There 
was  certainly  nothing  in  these  later  books  which  would  "afford 
innocent  and  virtuous  amusement  and  occupy  agreeably  the  leisure 
or  vacant  hours  of  life." 

The  fourth  stage  really  lies  beyond  the  scope  of  this  chapter. 
It  was  marked  by  an  attempt  to  combine  the  earlier  natural  history 
type  of  material  with  the  more  formal  anatomical  and  morpho- 
logical types  immediately  preceding  it.  Field  work  is  combined 
with  laboratory  work  and  the  emphasis  was  upon  the  functional 
aspect  of  animal  life.  Davenport's  Introduction  to  Zoology  (1900) 
was  influential  in  bringing  about  the  changes  which  mark  the  period. 

Botany  as  shown  by  Table  X  has  occupied  an  important  place 
in  science  instruction.  It  was  a  short-time  subject  and  except  for 
the  change  from  the  three-term  to  the  semester  plan  the  time 
devoted  to  it  remained  practically  constant.  Attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  lack  of  correlation  between  this  subject 
and  zoology  after  the  older  type  of  material  called  natural  history 
ceased  to  be  taught.  Toward  the  close  of  the  century  biology 
begins  to  receive  attention,  but  on  the  whole,  botany  remained 
detached  from  other  science  subjects  to  the  close  of  the  century. 

The  teaching  of  botany  may  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  be 
divided  into  four  periods.  The  subject  was  regarded  as  a  premedi- 
cal  study  and  was  offered  by  higher  institutions  for  medical  stu- 
dents. This  type  of  instruction,  however,  belongs  to  a  time  pre- 
ceding 1860  and  the  aim  has  probably  had  little,  if,  indeed,  any 
influence  in  determining  subject-matter  or  method  of  treatment 
since  that  date.  The  secondary  texts  were  nothing  more  than 
abridgments  of  the  more  advanced  texts  and  contained  merely  a 
less  amount  of  the  same  kind  of  material.  During  these  early 
years  the  religious  aim  was  among  those  stated  in  the  prefaces,  and 
in  the  mind  of  the  author  of  the  book^  most  in  use  after  1860  this 
aim  seems  to  have  exerted  some  influence.     It  is  probable  that 

1  Gray,  Asa,  Hov>  Plants  Grow,  1858. 


THE  SCIENCES  153 

teachers  were  more  or  less  influenced  by  it  in  their  interpretations 
and  applications,  but  there  is  not  much  direct  evidence  bearing 
upon  the  question. 

The  second  period  is  characterized  by  an  emphasis  almost  to 
the  entire  seclusion  of  everything  else  upon  anatomical  structure. 
The  chief  aim  to  be  realized  in  teaching  the  subject,  if  one  draws 
his  conclusions  from  the  subject-matter  and  its  organization,  was 
to  train  students  in  the  technique  of  analyzing  and  classifying 
flowers  and  plants.  Much  attention  was  given  to  a  minute  des- 
cription of  plants  from  the  standpoint  of  structure  and  to  a  classi- 
fication of  these  with  reference  to  kind,  genera,  and  species. 

Botany  furnishes  an  exception  in  the  field  of  science  in  that 
two  books,  as  shown  by  lists  of  texts  published  in  school  reports, 
were  used  more  than  all  others  combined.  Gray's  text,  already 
cited  above,  was  used  almost  exclusively  until  1895  and  even  in 
the  period  1896-1900  it  was  used  in  more  schools  than  any  other 
single  text  and  in  nearly  half  of  the  schools  listed  in  Table  H.  This 
book,  therefore,  constitutes  the  chief  source  of  information  con- 
cerning the  character  of  instruction  to  1895  and  from  that  date  to 
1900  for  nearly  one-half  of  the  schools.^  The  other  book'^  belongs 
to  the  third  period  and  will  be  discussed  later.  It  stands  next  to 
Gray's  text,  and  these  two  were  used  in  about  75  per  cent  of  the 
schools  during  the  period  1896-1900. 

Since  Gray's  text  was  so  largely  used  it  will  be  taken  as  a  basis 
for  explanation  of  the  character  of  the  subject-matter  and  method 
of  treatment  which  characterized  the  second  period.  This  book 
was  published  first  in  1858  and  continued  to  be  published  practically 
without  revision.  The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Part  I 
contains  four  chapters  having  the  following  titles:  chapter  i, 
"How  Plants  Grow  and  What  Their  Parts  or  Organs  Are,"  fifty 
pages;  chapter  ii,  "How  Plants  Are  Propagated  or  Multiplied  in 
Numbers,"  twenty-nine  pages;  chapter  iii,  "Why  Plants  Grow, 
What  They  Are  Made  for  and  What  They  Do,"  eight  pages; 
chapter  iv,  "How  Plants  Are  Classified,  Named,  and  Studied," 
fourteen  pages.  Part  H  consists  of  "Popular  Flora,  A  Classifica- 
tion and  Description  of  the  Common  Plants  of  the  Country, 
Both  Wild   and   Cultivated   under  Their   Natural   Orders,"   one 

1  There  were  other  texts  by  Gray  but  this  book  was  the  one  in  use  in  most  of  the  schools.  The  other 
texts  by  this  author  do  not  differ  in  character  of  subject-matter. 

2  Bergen,  J.  Y.,  Elements  of  Botany,  1896. 


154  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

hundred  and  eleven  pages.  Chapter  iv  really  belongs  to  Part  II 
since  it  consists  of  minute  instructions  in  the  art  of  classifying, 
naming,  and  studying  plants. 

The  viewpoint  of  the  author  can  be  stated  by  quoting  from  the 
preface : 

Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow:  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they 
spin:  and  yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed 
like  one  of  these. — Matthew  vi,  28,  29.  Our  Lord's  direct  object  in  his  lesson 
of  the  lilies  was  to  convince  the  people  of  God's  care  for  them.  Now  this 
clothing  of  the  earth  with  plants  and  flowers — at  once  so  beautiful  and  so  useful, 
so  essential  to  all  animal  life — is  one  of  the  very  ways  in  which  He  takes  care 
of  his  creatures.  And  when  Christ  himself  directs  us  to  consider  with  attention 
the  plants  around  us — to  notice  how  they  grow,  how  varied,  how  numerous,  and 
how  elegant  they  are,  and  with  what  exquisite  skill  they  are  fashioned  and 
adorned — we  shall  surely  find  it  profitable  and  pleasant  to  learn  the  lessons  which 
they  teach. 

"Now  this  considering  of  plants  inquiringly  and  intelligently  is 
the  study  of  botany.  It  is  an  easy  study  when  pursued  in  the 
right  way  and  with  diligent  attention.  There  is  no  difficulty  in 
understanding  how  plants  grow,  are  nourished  by  the  ground,  the 
rain,  and  the  air,  nor  in  learning  what  their  parts  are,  how  they  are 
adapted  to  each  other,  and  the  way  the  plants  live.  And  any 
young  person  who  will  take  some  pains  about  it  may  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish all  our  common  plants,  and  to  find  out  their  names. 

"Interesting  as  this  study  is  to  all,  it  must  be  particularly  so 
to  young  people.  It  appeals  to  their  natural  curiosity — to  their 
lively  desire  to  know  about  things;  it  calls  out  and  directs,  i.e., 
educates,  their  powers  of  observation,  and  is  adapted  to  sharpen 
and  exercise,  in  a  very  pleasant  way,  the  faculty  of  discrimination. 
To  learn  how  to  observe  and  how  to  distinguish  things  correctly  is  the 
greater  part  of  education,  and  is  that  in  which  people  otherwise 
well  educated  are  apt  to  be  deficient.  Natural  objects,  everywhere 
present  and  endless  in  variety,  afford  the  best  field  for  practice; 
and  the  study  when  young,  first  of  botany,  and  afterwards  of  the 
other  natural  sciences,  as  they  are  called,  is  the  best  training  that 
can  be  in  these  respects.  This  study  ought  to  begin  even  before 
the  study  of  language,  for  to  distinguish  things  scientifically,  i.e., 
carefully  and  accurately,  is  simpler  than  to  distinguish  ideas. 
In  natural  history  the  learner  is  gradually  led  from  the  observation 
of  things,  up  to  the  study  of  ideas  or  the  relation  of  things." 

"The  first  and  most  important  thing  for  a  student  is  to  know 
well  the  general  plan  of  a  plant  and  the  way  it  grows,  the  parts  of 


THE  SCIENCES  155 

plants,  the  uses  of  the  several  parts,  their  general  forms,  and  the 
names  which  are  used  to  distinguish  them.  This  is  all  very  inter- 
esting and  very  useful  in  itself,  and  it  is  indispensable  for  studying 
plants  with  any  satisfaction  or  advantage  to  find  out  their  names, 
their  properties,  and  the  family  they  belong  to,  i.e.,  to  ascertain 
the  kinds  of  plants." 

An  occasional  reference  is  made  to  the  religious  aspect  of  the 
subject  in  the  textbook  itself  as  the  following  will  show: 

In  learning  as  we  have  done,  How  Plants  Grow  and  Why  They  Grow,  have 
we  not  learned  more  of  the  lesson  of  the  text  placed  at  the  beginning  of  this  book, 
and  of  the  verses  that  follow?  "Wherefore  if  God  so  clothed  the  grass  of  the 
field,  shall  He  not  much  more  clothe  you?  ....  Therefore,  take  no  thought, 
saying  What  shall  we  eat?  or.  What  shall  we  drink?  or  Wherewithal  shall  we  be 
clothed?  For  your  Heavenly  Father  knoweth  that  ye  have  need  of  all  these 
things."  And  we  now  perceive  that  causing  plants  to  grow  is  the  very  way  in 
which  He  bountifully  supplies  these  needs,  and  feeds,  clothes,  warms,  and  shelters 
the  myriads  of  beings  He  has  made,  and  especially  Man  whom  he  made  to  have 
dominion  over  them  all.^ 

In  order  that  the  vegetable  creation  might  be  adapted  to  every  soil,  situation 
and  climate,  and  to  the  different  wants  of  the  greatest  variety  of  animals  as  well 
as  to  the  many  peculiar  needs  of  mankind,  God  created  plants  in  a  vast  number 
of  kinds.  And  in  order  that  these  should  be  perpetuated  and  kept  distinct  He 
ordained  that  each  should  yield  and  seed  fruit  "after  its  kind."  So  each  sort  of 
plant  multiplies  and  perpetuates  itself  from  generation  to  generation.* 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  statements  concerning  the  divisions 
of  the  book  that  about  one-half  is  devoted  to  the  "Popular  Flora" 
and  instructions  concerning  how  to  classify,  name,  and  study 
plants.  The  emphasis  of  the  text  is  almost  entirely  upon  a  study 
of  the  anatomical  structure  of  plants  and  flowers  in  order  to  classify 
them  with  reference  to  class,  order,  or  family,  genus,  and  specie. 
This  is  carried  out  in  great  detail  as  shown  by  the  treatment  of 
leaves.  More  than  fifty  figures  are  used  to  illustrate  the  minute 
descriptions  of  the  various  kinds.  More  than  forty  figures  are 
employed  to  illustrate  the  descriptions  of  the  forms  and  kinds  of 
flowers.  These  descriptions  abound  in  technical  terms  and  a 
strictly  logical  order  of  treatment  prevails.  There  is  nowhere  any 
suggestion  of  the  application  of  the  knowledge  gained  except  in 
gaining  more  of  the  same  kind.  At  the  close  of  each  section  an 
"analysis  of  the  section"  is  given.  The  following  is  a  sample  of 
the  analysis: 

Leaves:  Their  parts — blade  footstalk,  stipules;  simple  and  compound; 
structure  and  veining  of  leaves — woody  or  fibrous  part,  cellular  tissue  or  green 

»  Gray,  Asa,  How  Plants  Grow,  1858,  chap,  iii,  p.  92. 
'  Ibid.,  chap,  iv,  p.  93. 


156  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

pulp,  epidermis  or  skin;  ribs;  veins  and  veinlets;  nerves,  so-called;  netted  veined 
and  reticulated.* 

This  is  carried  out  still  farther  in  the  shapes  of  leaves.  Seeds, 
flowers,  stems,  and  roots  are  all  treated  in  the  same  detailed  manner. 

The  author  no  doubt  intended  that  the  student  should  have 
opportunity  to  study  plants  and  flowers  first  hand  as  shown  by  the 
following  statement  in  the  preface : 

Let  the  learners,  or  the  class  under  their  teacher,  in  the  first  place  go  carefully 
once  through  the  First  Part,  or  at  least  through  the  first  two  chapters,  verifying 
the  examples  and  illustrations  given,  as  far  as  possible  with  their  own  eyes,  and 
searching  for  other  examples  in  the  plants  and  flowers  around  them. 

He  indicates  the  emphasis  upon  the  subject-matter  of  the  text  in 
the  following: 

Then  they  may  begin  to  study  plants  by  the  Flora,  or  Second  Part  of  the 
book,  according  to  directions  given  in  the  last  section  of  Chapter  iv. 

Probably  very  little  laboratory  work  was  done.  There  is  not  much 
evidence  found  either  way  in  the  printed  courses  of  study  but  what 
there  is  of  it  is  nearly  all  negative.  Some  statements  are  found 
deploring  the  lack  of  laboratory  facilities  and  the  purely  textbook 
character  of  the  work,  while  only  very  rarely  is  anything  said  on 
the  positive  side.  In  these  cases  the  statements  are  no  more 
detailed  than  to  say  that  pupils  are  expected  to  prepare  herbariums 
consisting  of  forty  or  fifty  specimens. 

The  third  period  is  characterized  by  the  emphasis  upon  the 
morphology  of  plants.  Bergen's  text  referred  to  on  page  153  is 
typical  of  the  books  published  after  1890,  emphasizing  the  mor- 
phological aspect  of  the  subject.  The  author  mentions  other 
phases  of  botany  in  the  preface  such  as  geographical  distribution, 
vegetable  physiology,  and  vegetable  ecology.  He  says,  however: 
There  is  not  usually  time  to  take  up  botanical  geography  or  to  do  much  more  than 
mention  the  important  subject  of  economic  botany,  the  study  of  the  uses  of 
plants  to  man.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  possible  for  the  student  to  learn  in  his 
high-school  course  a  good  deal  about  the  simpler  parts  of  morphology  and  of 
vegetable  physiology .^ 

The  text  itself  shows  the  same  emphasis  upon  morphology  as 
indicated  in  the  preface.  The  explanation  of  the  term  morphology 
in  the  preface  is  a  fair  characterization  of  the  text. 

Morphology,  or  the  science  of  form,  structure,  and  so  on,  deals  with  the  plant 
without  much  regard  to  its  character  as  a  living  thing.     Under  this  head  are 

>  Gray,  Asa,  How  Plants  Grow,  1858. 

»  Bergen,  J.  Y.,  Elements  of  Botany,  1896. 


THE  SCIENCES  157 

studied  the  forms  of  plants  and  the  various  shapes  or  disguises  which  the  same 
sort  of  organ  may  take  in  different  kinds  of  plants,  their  gross  structure,  their 
classification,  and  the  successive  stages  in  the  history  of  the  germs  from  which 
all  but  a  few  of  the  simplest  plants  are  formed. 

Thirty-three  experiments  are  called  for  and  much  other  labora- 
tory work  contemplated.  There  are  two  hundred  and  eight  figures 
used  to  illustrate  the  descriptive  material  of  the  text.  The  nature 
of  the  work  is  explained  in  brief  as  follows : 

One  does  not  become  a  botanist — not  even  much  of  an  amateur  in  the  sub- 
ject— by  reading  books  about  botany.  It  is  necessary  to  study  plants  themselves, 
to  take  them  to  pieces  and  make  out  the  connection  of  their  parts,  to  examine 
with  the  microscope  small  sections  of  the  exterior  surface  and  thin  slices  of  all  of 
the  variously  built  materials  or  tissues  of  which  the  plant  consists. 

The  method  of  treatment  here  suggested  is  further  emphasized 
in  Appendix  A  by  a  detailed  description  of  how  to  use  a  compound 
microscope.  Appendix  B  supplies  an  extended  list  of  apparatus 
and  Appendix  C  indicates  the  material  for  study  in  connection  with 
each  chapter.  Appendix  E  is  devoted  to  a  detailed  discussion  of 
the  purpose  and  use  of  the  notebook.  Two  books  are  recom- 
mended— one  for  drawing  and  one  for  written  notes.  The  impor- 
tance of  systematized  work  is  stressed  and  the  reason  for  this  is 
stated  as  follows: 

It  will  go  far  toward  training  the  pupil  into  a  scientific  habit  of  mind  if  he  is 
required  in  his  notes  and  his  recitations  to  distinguish  clearly  the  sources  of  his 
knowledge.* 

The  point  of  view  of  the  author,  the  methods  of  teaching  and 
learning  insisted  upon,  and  the  text  itself  all  lead  to  the  conviction 
that  the  work  was  very  formal  and  even  highly  technical.  Knowl- 
edge of  plant  life  except  in  the  most  narrow  sense,  certainly  was  not 
the  controlling  aim  in  instruction.  On  the  contrary,  it  seems  to 
have  been  that  of  mental  discipline  stated  in  terms  of  "training 
into  a  scientific  habit  of  mind."  The  century  closed  with  this 
type  of  instruction  prevailing  in  many  schools  and  within  a  very 
short  time  it  became  practically  universal  in  secondary  education. 
The  fourth  period  will  be  discussed  in  Part  III. 

Physiology,  like  grammar  and  arithmetic,  was  taught  in  the 
grades  as  well  as  the  high  school.  It  has  therefore  never  been 
regarded  as  distinctively  a  secondary  subject  as  have  the  other 
biological  sciences  and  clear  lines  of  demarcation  between  elemen- 

'  Bergen,  J.  Y.,  Elements  of  Botany,  1896.    Appendix  E. 


158  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

tary,  high-school,  and  college  texts  are  not  always  drawn.  In 
consequence  of  this,  the  work  is  not  standardized  and  varied  from 
very  elementary  in  character  to  that  of  college  grade,  depending 
upon  the  particular  kind  of  textbooks  in  use.  For  example,  one 
school  would  use  Martin's  Human  Body,^  a  college  text,  while 
another  would  use  The  Eclectic  Physiology,^  an  elementary  text. 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  latter  class  of  books  as  shown  by  pub- 
lished lists  of  texts,  were  in  most  common  use. 

In  a  general  way  physiology  has  passed  through  stages  similar 
to  those  of  the  other  biological  sciences.  For  example  the  religious 
aim  was  more  or  less  common  in  the  earlier  years.  The  knowledge 
aim  functioned  considerably  throughout  the  whole  period,  i.e., 
knowledge  as  an  end  in  itself.  The  other  aim  which  controlled 
more  or  less  was  the  so-called  practical  or  hygienic  aim.  This, 
however,  came  rather  late,  not  much  emphasis  being  placed  upon 
it  until  near  the  close  of  the  century.  The  subject-matter  which 
received  the  most  attention  throughout  the  whole  period  was  of  the 
anatomical  sort. 

The  authors  of  one  of  the  earlier  books'  state  the  following  in 
the  preface: 

This  work  is  offered  to  the  public  in  the  hope  that  it  has  some  desirable  fea- 
tures as  a  textbook  not  found  in  any  of  the  able  elementary  works  on  anatomy 
and  physiology  now  extant.  One  is  the  introduction  of  more  microscopic  work 
in  anatomy  than  is  usual.  Another  is  the  large  addition  of  comparative  anatomy 
which  has  now  become  a  science  of  great  importance.  The  third  is  the  religious 
application  of  this  science. 

The  author  states  that  he  has  attempted  to  give  a  condensed  yet 
clear  exposition  of  the  leading  principles  and  facts.  What  particu- 
lar value  these  would  have  for  anyone  save  a  physician  or  a  teacher 
of  anatomy  is  not  readily  seen.  In  this  book  one  hundred  pages 
are  devoted  to  a  study  of  bones;  fifty  pages  to  the  muscles;  fifty 
pages  to  the  nutritive  system,  and  still  another  fifty  pages  to  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  The  other  usual  topics  follow  with  less 
space  devoted  to  each.  The  emphasis  throughout  the  book  is 
upon  anatomy  of  a  rather  technical  sort.  Considerable  attention 
is  given,  as  has  been  promised,  to  "comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology,"  and  finally  about  fifteen  pages  are  devoted  to  what 

'Martin,  H.  Newell,  The  Human  Body:  An  Account  of  Its  Structure  and  Activities  and  the  Con- 
ditions of  Its  Healthy  Working,  1880  and  1890. 

»  Bkown,  Eli  F.,  The  Eclectic  Physiology  for  Use  in  Schools,  188i. 

»  Hitchcock,  Edward,  and  Hitchcock,  Edward  Jr.,  Elementary  Physiology,  1S66. 


THE  SCIENCES  159 

he  calls  "religious  inferences  from  anatomy  and  physiology." 
His  discussion  falls  under  these  general  topics  as  follows:  I.  Proofs 
of  the  existence  of  God.  II.  Proofs  of  divine  benevolence.  III. 
Anatomy  and  physiology  furnish  presumptive  evidence  that  the 
world  is  in  a  fallen  condition.  IV.  Anatomy  and  physiology  fur- 
nish proof  of  divine  unity.  V.  Anatomy  and  physiology  disprove 
the  atheistic  hypothesis  that  the  development  of  animal  organs  is 
the  result  of  mere  law.  He  attacks  what  he  calls  the  development 
hypothesis  as  follows: 

This  hypothesis  supposes  that  the  organs  were  not  contrived  and  constructed 
by  an  intelligent  mind  for  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied  but  that  the  influence 
of  the  living  mass  of  almost  amorphus  matter  led  to  such  efforts  as  ultimately  to 
form  an  organ.' 

VI.  Anatomy  and  physiology  show  the  unreasonableness  of  object- 
ing to  mystery  in  religion. 

The  cases  of  mystery  in  anatomy  and  physiology  are  more  striking  than  in 
religion.' 

The  emphasis  upon  hygiene,  theoretically  at  least,  began  about 
1875  with  the  publication  of  Hutchison's  text.  The  author  was  a 
physician  and  the  book  clearly  shows  the  influence  of  the  profes- 
sional point  of  view.  Anatomical  structure  comes  in  for  consider- 
able attention  but  more  emphasis  is  given  to  physiology  than  was 
the  case  in  Hitchcock's  book.  Its  technical  character  is  illustrated 
by  considerable  attention  being  given  to  the  use  of  the  microscope 
and  to  dissection.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  about  all  of  the  so-called 
practical  subject-matter  in  the  book  is  placed  in  an  appendix  and 
deals  with  poisons  and  their  antidotes. 

Another  book^  in  quite  general  use,  published  ten  years  later, 
contains  the  same  general  character  of  subject-matter  and  the 
method  of  treatment  is  very  similar  to  the  book  described  above. 
This  book  is  in  fact  a  text  on  anatomy,  very  little  attention  being 
given  to  hygiene.  The  emphasis  is  upon  descriptions  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  human  body  and  the  physiological  processes  that  go  on. 
For  example,  in  the  chapter  on  the  digestive  organs  and  digestion, 
most  of  the  discussion  is  devoted  to  an  explanation  of  the  digestive 
process  with  but  little  reference  to  the  health  side  of  the  matter. 
A  great  deal  of  emphasis  is  placed  throughout  the  book  upon  dis- 

'  Elementary  Physiology,  Hitchcock,  Edw.  and  Hitchcock,  Edw.  Jr.,  1866,  p.  431. 

*Ilnd. 

•  CuTTEB,  John  S.,  Comprekemhe  Physiology,  Anatomy  and  Hygiene,  1885. 


160  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

section  and  the  use  of  the  microscope.  About  twenty  pages  at  the 
close  of  the  book  are  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  emergency 
cases.  This  is  intended  to  be  of  a  practical  sort,  but  the  language 
and  the  instructions  are  such  that  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  any- 
one except  a  physician  or  a  trained  nurse  would  be  able  to  get  very 
much  out  of  it. 

The  books  began  soon  after  1880  to  include  a  treatment  of  the 
effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  and  to  place  relatively  more 
emphasis  upon  hygiene.  The  Eclectic,  for  example,  devotes  nine 
pages  to  "Elementary  Sanitary  Science."  This  chapter  includes 
such  topics  as,  what  to  eat  and  drink,  clothing  and  cleanliness,  pure 
air,  and  care  of  the  sick.  Four  pages  are  given  to  "Emergency 
and  Accident"  and  fourteen  pages  to  "Alcohol — Its  Effects  upon 
the  Body  and  Mind."  Short  paragraphs  throughout  the  book 
are  devoted  to  hygiene  of  the  skin,  of  the  eyes,  of  the  ears,  and 
the  like. 

2.      THE  PHYSICAL  SCIENCES 

This  constitutes  the  most  important  branch  of  the  sciences 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  percentage  of  schools  offering  science  as 
shown  by  Table  X.  Physics  was  the  one  constant  among  the 
sciences  and  chemistry  was  offered  in  more  than  three-fifths  of  the 
schools^  at  the  close,  and  the  average  was  above  this  for  the  entire 
forty-year  period.  Theoretically,  at  least,  the  points  of  view  con- 
trolling in  the  biological  sciences  obtained  here,  except  the  reli- 
gious, and  that  seems  to  have  had  no  influence  in  determining  the 
selection  of  subject-matter  or  emphasis  in  instruction. 

Physics,  natural  philosophy  being  the  older  term,  was  the  one 
science  taken  over  from  the  earlier  schools  whose  place  was  firmly 
established  in  the  curriculum  of  all  the  high  schools  and  whose 
increasing  importance  is  shown  by  any  considerable  increase  in 
time  devoted  to  the  subject. 

The  teaching  of  physics  was  controlled  by  two  aims  and  the 
character  of  instruction  was  determined  by  the  emphasis  upon  one 
or  the  other  of  these.  Roughly  speaking,  the  knowledge  aim  con- 
trolled during  the  first  twenty  years  and  the  disciplinary  one  there- 
after. The  earlier  period  was  really  characterized  by  an  attempt, 
theoretically  at  least,  to  realize  both  aims,  while  in  the  later  period, 
both  theoretically  and  practically,  the  disciplinary  controlled 
almost  entirely. 

>  Chemistry,  as  stated  in  Part  I,  was  confined  to  the  larger  schools  in  a  greater  degree  than  physics, 
and  this  percentage  would  not  represent  the  exact  status  if  the  same  schools  were  represented  propor- 
tionally in  the  tables. 


THE  SCIENCES  161 

As  pointed  out  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  aims  in 
teaching  the  science  subjects,  pages  147-8,  the  knowledge  aim  was 
really  a  twofold  one.  Knowledge  was  valuable  for  its  own  sake 
and  also  because  of  its  use  in  the  practical  aflfairs  of  life.  The 
earlier  books  all  emphasized  in  their  prefaces  the  importance  of 
knowledge  from  both  these  standpoints.  Only  an  occasional  book, 
however,  made  good  in  the  text  the  promise  made  in  the  preface. 
In  commenting  upon  textbooks  in  physics.  Professor  WoodhuU 
says: 

In  1850,  in  the  preface  of  his  Natural  Philosophy,  Wells  wrote:  "The  princi- 
ples of  physical  science  are  so  intimately  connected  with  the  arts  and  occupations 
of  everyday  life,  with  our  very  existence  and  continuance  as  sentient  beings,  that 
public  opinion  at  the  present  time  imperatively  demands  that  the  course  of 
instruction  in  this  subject  shall  be  as  full,  thorough,  and  complete  as  opportunity 
and  time  will  permit."  ....  Of  the  fifty  or  more  high-school  texts  written  in 
the  last  fifty  years  there  is  scarcely  one  which  has  not  repeated  the  sentiment  in 
its  preface.  When,  however,  we  come  to  look  into  the  body  of  the  text  we  are 
invariably  disappointed.  Those  who  have  written  within  the  last  fifteen  years 
have  noticeably  been  circumscribed  in  this  matter.' 

Examination  of  textbooks  reveals  that  the  above  is  a  fair  characteri- 
zation, not  only  of  later  books,  but  also  of  some  of  the  earlier  ones. 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  period  preceding  1880  was  characterized 
by  a  type  of  instruction  which  emphasized  the  more  practical  phase 
of  the  subject.  After  that  date  attention  was  shifted  to  laboratory 
work  involving  the  performing  of  experiments  by  pupils,  and 
instruction  became  not  only  formal  but  also  rather  barren  of  useful 
knowledge  of  any  sort.  Commenting  upon  this  contrast,  Pro- 
fessor WoodhuU  says : 

Wells,  under  the  head  "Strength  of  Material"  gives  an  interesting  and  illumi- 
nating account  covering  eight  pages,  dealing  with  hollow  bones  of  animals, 
hollow  stalks  of  grain,  columns  of  buildings,  and  other  interesting  things.  Within 
the  last  fifteen  years,  however,  the  exigences  of  college  preparation  have  sub- 
stituted for  all  this  a  laboratory  exercise  in  which  each  pupil  attempts  to  find  out 
the  number  of  grains  required  to  break  a  piece  of  small  wire.  We  certainly  need 
common  sense  instruction  about  strength  material. 

All  of  the  earlier  books,  however,  do  not  emphasize  the  "philoso- 
phy of  common  things."  Comstock's  text^  is  an  example.  It  is 
almost  wholly  descriptive  and  without  any  practical  applications  of 
the  facts  learned.     There  are  no  mathematical  problems  and  the 

>  WooDHULL,  J.  F.,  The  Teaching  of  Physical  Science,  1910,  p.  S. 

«  CoMSTOCK,  J.  L.,  A  System  of  Natural  Philosophy,  1840.  There  were  later  editions  not  differing 
essentially  from  the  edition  of  1840. 


162  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

book  abounds  in  cuts  and  drawings  to  illustrate  the  principles 
studied.  It  is  evident  that  no  experiments  are  performed  by  the 
pupils  but  it  calls  for  or  at  least  suggests  considerable  demonstration 
work  to  be  given  by  the  teacher.  The  knowledge  aim  controls 
and  is  of  a  sort  that  "every  well-informed  person  ought  to  know," 
but  with  no  suggestion  of  practical  application. 

Parker's  Philosophy^  is  similar  to  Comstock's  except  that  it 
contains  a  number  of  mathematical  problems.  It  abounds  in 
definitions,  and  the  general  plan  of  organization  is  that  of  question 
and  answer.  There  is  no  suggestion  anywhere  in  the  book  of 
emphasis  upon  a  knowledge  of  "common  things"  as  was  the  case 
in  Wells's  text  and  a  later  one  by  Steele.  No  experimentation  is 
required  of  students  and  probably  no  demonstration  work  expected 
of  the  teacher.  This  book  shows  that  it  belongs  to  the  older 
order  by  including  about  sixty-five  pages  of  subject-matter  belong- 
ing to  astronomy. 

Cooley's  text'^  was  one  of  the  books  published  before  1880  that 
emphasized  the  disciplinary  aim.     In  the  preface  the  author  says: 

The  great  aim  of  this  little  book  is  to  present  the  most  elementary  facts  of 
"Natural  Philosophy"  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  student  to  thoroughly  and 
consistently  observe  phenomena  and  to  draw  inferences  from  what  he  observes. 
The  study  is  not  only  easy  and  interesting;  it  is  also  in  the  highest  degree  beneficial 
to  the  young  partly  because  of  the  value  of  the  facts  which  it  imparts  but  even 
more  on  account  of  the  mental  power  it  develops.  The  object  of  primary  educa- 
tion should  be  to  discipline  the  senses  to  habits  of  quick  and  accurate  observation 
and  the  mind  to  the  habit  of  forming  correct  judgments  from  the  facts  which  the 
senses  reveal.  Natural  Philosophy  furnishes  abundant  material  of  the  most 
excellent  kind  by  means  of  which  this  may  be  accomplished. 

The  author  states  that  the  subject  is  to  be  introduced  by  means 
of  easy  experiments  with  phenomena  of  common  occurrence  and  the 
pupil  called  upon  to  notice  what  these  suggest.  This  is  to  be 
followed  by  a  precise  and  accurate  statement  of  the  principle 
involved.  Many  of  the  paragraph  titles  are  in  the  form  of  ques- 
tions. The  experiments  are  of  the  most  simple  sort  and  seem  to 
be  rather  remotely  related  to  the  experience  of  the  average  high- 
school  student.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  demonstration  by 
the  teacher  and  no  experiments  by  the  student  is  the  real  intent  of 
the  author.  On  the  whole  the  book  is  concrete  and  contains  a 
wide  range  of  information. 

>  Parker's  Philosophy.     Revised  by  George  W.  Plympton,  1871. 

'  Cooi.EV,  Roy  C,  Natural  Philosophy  for  Commort  and  High  Schools,  1872. 


THE  SCIENCES  163 

Another  book^  of  the  same  period  emphasizing  the  general 
knowledge  aim  and  also  experimentation  as  a  method  is  one  by 
Rolfe  and  Gillett.  It  consists  of  two  parts  also  published  as 
separate  volumes.  Part  I  is  entitled  "Elements  of  Natural  Philo- 
sophy" but  it  might  better  be  "Mechanics"  since  it  treats  quite 
exclusively  that  phase  of  the  subject.  The  title  to  Part  II  is 
"Light,  Sound,  and  Heat"  and  is  justified  by  the  contents.  The 
book  as  a  whole  is  evidently  intended  to  give  general  information 
without  any  suggestions  relating  to  its  application.  Concerning 
experiments,  the  authors  say  in  the  preface : 

As  the  principles  of  physical  science  are  all  established  by  fact  and  observa- 
tion, the  method  has  been  adopted  in  this  course  of  first  establishing  the  fact  by 
experiment  when  this  is  possible,  and  then  drawing  out  the  principle.  From  their 
experience  as  teachers,  the  authors  strongly  recommend  that  each  lesson  be 
explained  and  illustrated  with  the  class  before  being  given  out  to  be  studied. 

The  emphasis,  however,  upon  the  descriptive  work  of  the  text  is 
shown  by  the  list  of  questions  at  the  close  which  suggest  no  prob- 
lems or  experiments  but  call  merely  for  a  knowledge  of  the  contents 
of  the  book. 

A  book^  in  wide  use  after  1870  and  in  fact  still  in  use  in  a  con- 
siderable number  of  schools  in  1900  emphasized  the  more  familiar 
and  practical  aspects  of  the  subject.  The  author  wrote  in  the 
preface  of  one  of  the  earlier  editions  (1873)  as  follows: 

From  the  multitude  of  principles  only  those  have  been  selected  which  are 

essential  to  the  information  of  every  well-read  person The  aim  is  to 

lead  young  people  to  become  lovers  and  interpreters  of  nature Choose 

simple  experiments  within  the  reach  of  every  pupil  at  home. 

This  is  one  of  the  books  in  which  the  text  fulfils  in  large  measure 
the  promise  contained  in  the  preface.  There  was  considerable 
emphasis  upon  "common  things"  and  the  experiments  were  simple, 
dealing  with  material  in  which  the  pupil  would  likely  be  interested 
and  with  which  he  would  be  more  or  less  familiar.  The  whole 
method  of  treatment,  however,  is  clearly  of  the  descriptive  type. 
The  intention  of  the  author  in  this  regard  is  shown  by  the  following 
under  "Suggestions  to  Teachers": 

Scholars  are  expected  to  obtain  information  from  this  book  without  the  aid 
of  questions  as  they  almost  always  do  in  their  general  reading.  When  the  subject 
of  the  paragraph  is  announced,  the  pupil  should  be  prepared  to  state  all  he  knows 
about  it. 

1  Rolfe  and  Gillett,  A  Book  of  Natural  Philosophy,  1868. 

'  Steele,  J  Dorman,  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Natural  Philosophy,  1868. 


164  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

At  the  close  of  the  book  four  pages  are  devoted  to  descriptions  of 
simple  apparatus  and  a  list  of  easy  experiments.  The  reference 
to  the  importance  of  experiments  found  in  the  prefaces  of  the 
books  between  1870  and  1880,  and  even  earlier,  begin  to  find 
expression  in  the  texts  themselves  after  1880.  The  fact  that  labora- 
tory work  is  receiving  some  attention,  and  also  the  prevalence  still 
of  textbook  methods,  is  shown  by  the  following  quoted  from  Circular 
of  Information,  Bureau  of  Education,  1880: 

In  high  schools  and  academies  the  teaching  of  chemistry  and  physics  varies 
between  widely  separated  limits.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  mere  textbook 
work  is  done,  only  a  few  experiments  being  performed  by  the  teacher.  In  some 
instances  the  scholars  have  laboratory  practice  in  both  subjects,  the  work  in 
chemistry  extending  through  a  full  year  and  including  the  outlines  of  analysis. 

Between  these  extremes  all  conceivable  variations  are  to  be  found That 

laboratory  practice  is  feasible  for  young  people,  all  teachers  familiar  with 
that  kind  of  instruction  will  testify.  But  as  there  are  some  who  still  doubt  the 
practicability  of  laboratory  methods,  a  little  evidence  may  be  presented  here.* 

Following  this  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  results  of  an  investiga- 
tion dealing  with  the  prevalence  and  character  of  laboratory  work. 
No  distinction  is  made,  however,  between  the  work  in  physics  and 
that  in  chemistry.  Fifty  schools  report  that  laboratory  work  is 
"permitted."  About  double  that  number  require  it.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  the  extracts  from  these  reports:  "Thirty  hours 
required — ^work  elementary;"  "twenty-four  hours  required — four 
hours  per  week  for  six  weeks;"  "only  simple  experiments  are  re- 
quired;" "laboratory  once  a  week;"  "each  pupil  does  a  little  labora- 
tory work;"  "the  pupils  have  limited  practice  in  a  small  laboratory." 

Textbooks  even  before  this  time  began  to  show  the  emphasis 
upon  laboratory  work  which  had  begun  in  chemistry  at  an  earlier 
date.  After  1885,  the  older  type  of  instruction  had  ceased  except 
as  it  survived  through  the  use  of  such  texts  as  Steele's.  The  books 
published  after  this  date  show  conclusively  that  the  era  of  supre- 
macy of  the  "Science  of  common  things"  had  passed  and  that  the 
new  era  of  formal  instruction  had  taken  its  place.  Gage's  text^ 
was  a  typical  one.  The  following  from  the  preface  indicates  the 
author's  point  of  view : 

An  experience  of  about  six  years  in  requiring  individual  laboratory  work  from 
my  pupils  has  constantly  tended  to  strengthen  my  conviction  that  in  this  way 
alone  can  a  pupil  become  a  master  of  the  subjects  taught With  a  text- 

1  Circular  oj  Information,  No.  4,  Bureau  of  Education,  1880. 
«  Gage,  A.  P.,  Introduction  to  Physical  Science,  1887. 


THE  SCIENCES  165 

book  prepared  on  the  induction  plan,  and  with  classroom  instruction  harmonizing 
with  it,  the  pupil  will  scarcely  fail  to  catch  the  spirit  and  method  of  the  instigator, 
while  much  of  his  limited  time  may  profitably  be  expended  in  applying  the 
principles  acquired  in  making  physical  measurements.' 

A  brief  statement  of  my  method  of  conducting  laboratory  exercises  may  be 
of  service  to  some  until  their  own  experience  has  taught  them  better  ways.' 
As  a  rule  the  principles  and  laws  are  discussed  in  the  classroom  in  preparation 
for  subsequent  work  in  the  laboratory.  The  pupil  then  enters  the  laboratory 
without  a  textbook,  receives  his  notebook  from  the  teacher,  goes  at  once  to  an 
unoccupied  (numbered)  desk  containing  apparatus,  reads  on  a  mural  blackboard 
the  questions  to  be  answered,  the  directions  for  the  work  to  be  done  with  the 

apparatus,  measurements  to  be  made,  etc These  notebooks  are  deposited 

in  a  receptacle  near  the  door  as  he  leaves  the  laboratory.  Nothing  is  ever  written 
in  them  except  at  the  times  of  experimenting.  These  books  are  examined  by  the 
teacher;  they  contain  the  only  written  tests  to  which  the  pupil  is  subjected, 
except  the  annual  test  given  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Supervisors. 

The  book  contains  three  hundred  and  fifty-five  pages  and  two 
hundred  and  forty-four  experiments  are  provided.  Numerous 
exercises  are  given  consisting  of  questions  and  problems  and  at 
the  close  is  a  list  of  review  questions.  These  are  in  keeping  with 
the  subject-matter  and  method  of  treatment  and  indicate  the  formal 
character  of  the  work.  They  show  the  emphasis  upon  such  matters 
as  the  "number  of  grains  required  to  break  a  piece  of  small  wire." 

Carhart  and  Chute^s  texts^  are  similar  to  Gage's  book  in  all 
essential  respects.  A  great  deal  of  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the 
mathematical  phase  of  the  subject  and  the  questions  and  problems 
indicate  the  same  general  character  of  material  and  plan  of  treat- 
ments. Other  texts  of  this  period  show  the  absence  of  the  older 
type  of  subject-matter,  and  of  the  practical  point  of  view,  in  the 
application  of  principles  to  matters  of  common  interest  in  the 
fields  of  vocational  activity. 

Professor  WoodhulF  quotes  from  several  authors  of  textbooks 
to  indicate  the  points  of  view  prevailing  in  the  physical  sciences 
near  the  close  of  the  century  and  especially  to  show  the  emphasis 
upon  laboratory  work.  Some  of  these,  however,  show  a  beginning 
of  the  reaction  against  the  formal  and  barren  character  of  the  work. 

Chemistry  has  suffered  from  the  irrepressible  wave  of  laboratory  madness 

which  has  swept  over  the  whole  educational  world Nothing  too  severe 

can  be  said  against  the  mechanical  and  demoralizing  system  of  notebooks  with 

•  Dr.  Gage  was  instructor  in  physics  in  the  English  High  School,  Boston. 

•  Carhart,  H.  C,  and  Chute,  H.  N.,  Elements  of  Physics,  1896;  Physics  for  High  School  Students, 
1901  and  1907. 

•  WooDHUix.  J.  F.,  The  Teaching  of  Physical  Science,  1910,  pp.  9-11. 


166  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

"operations,  observations"  and  "inference"  headings.  They  are  wholesale 
breeders  of  dishonest  and  superficial  work.  [Torrey.]  A  few  years  ago  it  seemed 
necessary  to  urge  upon  teachers  the  adoption  of  the  laboratory  methods  to  illus- 
trate the  textbook;  in  not  a  few  instances  it  would  now  seem  almost  necessary  to 
urge  the  use  of  textbook  to  render  intelligible  the  chaotic  work  of  the  laboratory. 
[Carhart  and  Chute.]     Physics  in  too  many  of  our  schools  ranks  as  a  most  difficult 

subject An  elementary  presentation  of  physics  should  begin  by  resuming 

what  might  be  called  the  experience  of  the  average  lad  of  sixteen  years 

The  demand,  therefore,  is  not  so  much  for  new  facts,  or  for  sheer  facts  of  any 
kind,  as  for  an  orderly  arrangement  and  an  ability  to  use  these  facts.     [Crew.] 

Chemistry  followed  much  the  same  line  in  its  development  as 
physics  except  that  laboratory  work  came  in  earlier  and  the  narrow, 
technical  type  of  work  also  developed  earlier.  Gage  remarks  of 
his  physics  text  (1882)  that  "chemistry  has  been  taught  by  the 
laboratory  method  for  twenty  years"  and  urges  the  introduction 
of  laboratory  method  in  physics. 

Two  of  the  earlier  texts  agree  in  that  they  are  descriptive  and 
call  for  comparatively  little  experimentation.  In  some  other 
respects  they  differ.  Comstock's  text^  follows  very  closely  the 
method  of  treatment  found  in  his  physics  text.''  It  is  evidently 
intended  to  give  a  rather  comprehensive  knowledge  of  chemistry 
by  means  of  description.  Numerous  cuts  and  drawings  are  pro- 
vided. There  is  an  absence  of  experiments  called  for  although  not 
in  the  same  degree  as  in  the  case  of  his  physics.  It  abounds  in 
definitions  and  explanations  of  chemical  phenomena. 

Hooker's  Chemistry'  (1863)  contains  the  following  in  the 
preface : 

A  large  proportion  of  the  experiments  can  be  treated  with  very  simple 
apparatus. 

The  experiments  are  very  simple  and  not  numerous.  The 
text  is  primarily  descriptive  and  makes  good  the  claim  of  the  author 
that  it  is  largely  a  chemistry  of  "common  things."  The  practical 
concrete  nature  of  the  book  is  shown  by  the  topics  treated  as 
follows:  vegetation — the  seed,  its  growth,  source  of  carbon  in 
plants,  organic  food  of  plants,  water  in  plants,  etc.;  soil — soil  in 
manures,  humus,  how  soil  was  originally  made,  different  kinds  of 
soils,  rotation  of  crops,  manures,  volatile  substances,  bone  dust, 
lime,  gypsum,  vegetable  refuse;  products  of  vegetables — vegetable 
acids,  tonic  acid,  coloring  matter,  oils  and  fats,  glycerine,  soaps, 

>  CoMSTOCK,  J.  L.,  Elements  of  Chemistry;  Designed  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Academies,  1861. 

»  Cf.  p.  161. 

•  Title-page  destroyed. 


THE  SCIENCES  167 

liniment,  emulsion,  varnish,  oils,  petroleum,  camphor;  fermenta- 
tion— fermentation  in  bread,  how  ether  is  obtained,  vinegar,  sour 
bread. 

At  the  close  of  the  book  is  a  list  of  questions  covering  the  text 
and  occupying  about  twenty-five  pages.  While  they  do  not  call 
for  applications  of  knowledge  gained  and  are  simply  tests  upon  the 
contents  of  the  book,  they  clearly  emphasize  the  chemistry  of 
common  things. 

Steele's  book^  was  very  similar  in  method  of  treatment  to  his 
work  on  physics.^     In  the  preface  of  the  former  he  says: 

Unusual  importance  is  given  to  that  practical  part  of  chemical  knowledge 
which  concerns  everyday  life. 

He  maintains  that  throughout  the  study  of  chemistry  a  clearer 
relation  should  be  established  between  the  "schoolroom  and  the 
kitchen,  farm,  and  shop." 

The  emphasis  upon  laboratory  practice  which  began  about 
1880  in  physics  had  its  beginning  in  chemistry  at  an  earlier  date 
and  its  influence  upon  subject-matter  extends  over  a  longer  period. 
The  effect  of  this  was  to  direct  attention  away  from  the  value  of 
content,  from  the  things  which  "every  well-informed  person  ought 
to  know"  and  from  its  relation  to  "kitchen,  farm,  and  shop"  to  the 
technique  of  laboratory  work. 

This  shift  of  emphasis  is  foreshadowed  by  some  of  the  texts 
already  cited  and  is  shown  clearly  by  the  books  published  after 
1880.  Greene's  text'  published  in  1884  is  rather  typical  of  the 
books  of  that  date.  The  author  was  a  high-school  teacher  and  the 
book  no  doubt  fairly  represents  what  was  actually  being  taught  in 
chemi  stry.  There  is  no  suggestion  in  the  book  of  relating  the  work 
of  the  classroom  to  vocational  activities  of  any  sort.  The  treat- 
ment if  formal  and  numerous  experiments  are  called  for  which 
indicate  the  emphasis  upon  laboratory  work. 

Another  book,*  and  one  widely  used,  belongs  to  the  same  type 
of  texts  as  the  one  cited  above.     The  author  says  in  the  preface: 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  object  of  the  course  laid  down  in  this 
book  is  not  to  make  chemists  but  to  help  develop  sound  minds  and  at  the  same 
time  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  subject  of  natural  phenomena  of  great  impor- 
tance to  mankind.  This  book  represents  the  ideal  in  the  teaching  of  chemistry 
in  that  it  contains  a  relatively  large  number  of  experiments. 

>  Steele,  J,  Dorman,  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Chemistry,  1869. 

2  Cf.  p.  243. 

«  Greene,  William  H.,  Lessons  in  Chemistry,  1884. 

*  Reksen,  Ira,  Elements  of  Chemistry:  A  Textjor  Beginners,  1887. 


168  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

In  the  two  hundred  and  forty-two  pages  constituting  the  text 
proper,  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  experiments  are  called  for. 
Neither  the  descriptive  material  nor  the  experiments,  however, 
contain  any  hint  of  the  chemistry  of  "common  things"  such  as  was 
found  in  the  earlier  books.  At  the  close  about  fifteen  pages  are 
devoted  to  questions  and  problems  intended  to  supplement  the 
experiments  contained  in  the  main  body  of  the  text.  A  comparison 
of  this  book  with  that  of  Hooker  or  Steele  shows  clearly  the  two 
periods  into  which  chemistry  instruction  falls.  Other  texts^  after 
1885  show  the  same  emphasis  and  general  method  as  Remsen's  book. 
In  speaking  of  the  character  of  the  work  of  physical  science 
during  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  and  the  first  years  of  the 
twentieth  century.  Professor  WoodhuU  says : 

Certainly  whatever  we  may  profess  in  the  preface  of  our  textbooks,  we  are 
actually  doing  less  in  our  schools  today  than  we  did  fifty  years  ago  to  make  science 
minister  to  the  needs  of  our  common  life.  The  fact  that  it  requires  a  certain 
number  of  grams  to  break  a  piece  of  No.  24  brass  wire  is  of  no  concern  to  any 
of  us — not  even  to  the  bridge-builder.  It  would  seem  that  laboratory  teachers, 
like  kindergarten  folks,  have  been  at  much  pains  to  invent  "busy  work."^ 

3.      THE  EARTH  SCIENCES 

Geology  declined  in  importanc  as  shown  by  Table  X  and  this 
decline  continued  as  shown  by  courses  of  study  after  1900.  It  was 
taught  from  the  standpoint  of  giving  a  general  knowledge  of 
geological  facts  in  the  earlier  years  and  little  or  no  change  in  point 
of  view  in  this  particular  takes  place  throughout  the  period.  The 
evolutionary  theory  received  much  less  consideration  in  the  older 
books  than  in  the  later  ones  but  this  does  not  materially  change 
the  older  emphasis  upon  knowledge  for  its  own  sake  without 
reference  to  economic  considerations  and  values.  The  prevalence 
of  the  aim  in  teaching  geology  manifest  in  the  second  edition  of 
Dana's  book^  is  shown  in  a  revised  edition  (1897).^  The  older 
book  consists  of  four  parts.  Part  I  deals  very  briefly  with  physio- 
graphic geology — size,  form,  and  surface  structure  of  the  earth. 
Part  II  is  devoted  to  kinds,  structure,  and  stratification  of  rocks, 
and  a  "view  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms."  The  latter 
is  simply  the  classification  of  plants  and  animals  the  same  as  found 

>  Elist  and  Stoker's,  Williams's  and  Shepard's  texts  are  examples. 
»  WooDHULL,  J.  F.,  The  Teaching  of  Physical  Science,  1910,  p.  6. 

'  Dana,  James  T).,A  Text-Book  on  Geology  Designed  for  Schools  and  Academies,  1874.  This  does  not 
differ  essentially  from  the  edition  of  1863. 

*  Dana,  James  D.,  Revised  Text-Book  on  Geology,  1897.    Edited  by  William  North  Rice. 


THE  SCIENCES  169 

in  the  texts  in  botany  and  zoology  of  that  time.  Part  III  is  devoted 
to  historical  geology  with  the  usual  divisions  of  time — ^Archaean, 
Palezoic,  etc.  Part  IV  consists  of  a  discussion  of  dynamical 
geology — the  causes  or  origins  of  events  in  geological  history  such 
as  power  of  gravitation,  atmosphere,  heat,  water,  and  the  like. 
The  editor  of  the  revised  edition  published  in  1897  says  in  the 
preface : 

It  was  proposed  In  the  plan  of  revision  that  the  distinctive  characteristics 
of  the  book  should  be  preserved  as  far  as  possible.  It  was  to  be  brought  down 
to  the  present  time  as  regards  its  facts,  but  it  was  still  to  express  the  well-known 
opinions  of  its  author. 

He  then  states  that  a  more  radical  revision  than  was  at  first  con- 
templated was  found  necessary  and  continues  as  follows: 

The  zoological  and  botanical  classifications  used  in  the  former  edition  were 
judged  to  be  obsolete.  The  endeavor  has  been  made  to  substitute  for  them,  as 
nearly  as  practical,  the  classifications  which  are  followed  in  the  majority  of  recent 
manuals  on  zoology  and  botany.  It  was  decided  that  the  theory  of  evolution 
required  fuller  recognition  than  it  had  received  in  the  previous  edition  of  this 

work  or  the  last  edition  of  his  Manual In  the  present  edition  the  bearing 

of  various  events  in  geological  history  upon  the  theory  of  evolution  is  pointed 
out  in  the  appropriate  places;  and  in  the  closing  chapter  which  has  been  entirely 
rewritten  the  general  bearing  of  paleontology  upon  evolution  is  discussed. 

The  book  contains  more  material  than  the  former  edition,  the 
facts  are  brought  up  to  date,  and  the  evolutionary  theory  empha- 
sized. These  represent  practically  the  only  changes  noted  in  the 
revised  edition. 

Lists  of  texts  found  in  the  printed  courses  of  study  show  that 
Dana's  books  were  used  more  than  any  other  text  during  all  the 
periods  and  more  than  all  others  in  most  of  the  periods. 

A  text^  occasionally  mentioned  in  the  published  list  of  texts 
differs  from  the  Dana  texts  chiefly  in  a  discussion  of  the  "bearings 
of  geology  upon  religion,"  [17  pages]  and  in  a  brief  account  of 
"economical  geology"  [12  pages].  The  most  of  this  discussion  is 
devoted  to  mining,  one  page  being  given  to  "agricultural  geology." 

Other  texts  such  as  Norton's  (1871)  and  Geikie's  (1890)  show 
the  same  general  character  of  material  and  method  of  treatment  as 
found  in  Dana's  books.  Geikie's  text  places  rather  unusual  empha- 
sis upon  the  classification  of  plants  and  animals  but  presents  no 
other  distinguishing  characteristics. 

>  Hitchcock,  Edward,  and  Hitchcock,  Charles  H.,  Elementary  Geology.  Second  EAlition,  1867. 
"This  differs  from  the  edition  of  1860  chiefly  by  the  insertion  of  such  new  numbers,  summaries  and  special 
details  in  technical  statement  as  are  required  by  the  late  rapid  accumulation  of  interesting  facts."    (Preface) 


170  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Physical  geography  was  one  of  the  more  important  science  sub- 
jects as  shown  by  Table  X.  The  number  of  schools  offering  it 
remained  practically  constant  and  there  was  no  change  in  time 
devoted  to  it  except  as  incidentally  resulted  from  the  change  from 
a  three-term  to  a  two-term  school  year. 

The  character  of  the  subject-matter  remained  practically  un- 
changed until  near  the  close  of  the  century  and  can  be  classified 
roughly  under  two  heads.  The  older  type  of  material  was  of  the 
general  information  sort  and  the  textbooks  were  on  the  order  of 
compendiums  of  knowledge  selected  from  several  of  the  science 
subjects.  The  new  standpoint  in  teaching  the  subject  becomes 
evident  in  the  very  last  years  of  the  century  and  this  resulted  in  a 
restriction  of  the  subject  rather  closely  to  the  earth  sciences.  The 
standpoint  as  expressed  in  the  preface  of  one  of  the  later  books^ 
was  as  follows: 

They  (the  earth's  physical  features)  must  not  be  presented  apart  from  the 
manner  in  which  they  affect  man's  ways  of  living;  attention  must  frequently  be 
drawn  to  the  association  of  human  conditions  with  the  environment  by  which 
they  have  been  determined,  in  order  to  form  the  habit  of  looking  at  the  features 
of  the  earth  as  prime  factors  in  guiding  the  development  of  mankind. 

These  two  points  of  view  then,  the  one  supplying  general  informa- 
tion without  any  guiding  aim  or  principle,  and  the  other  presenting 
these  facts  with  reference  to  how  "they  effect  man's  ways  of  living" 
are  the  indexes  to  the  character  of  the  subject-matter. 

An  example  of  the  older  type  of  text  is  Mitchell's  Physical 
Geography.^     In  the  preface  he  says: 

In  the  following  the  writer  has  endeavored  to  unfold  concisely,  yet  in  their 
completeness,  the  principles  and  facts  of  Physical  Geography,  and  has  sought  by 
the  mode  of  presenting  them  and  by  freshness  of  illustration  to  uphold  the  intrin- 
sic interest  in  this  department  of  science. 

No  mention  is  made  of  the  relations  which  the  subject  may  have 
to  life  upon  the  earth  or  to  any  particular  use  to  which  the  informa- 
tion may  be  put.  The  following,  quoting  again  from  the  preface, 
shows  also  the  religious  viewpoint : 

The  physical  phenomena  of  the  world  reveal  in  their  harmonious  action  a 
unity  of  plan  and  purpose,  and  display  in  an  infinite  variety  of  ways,  the  Power, 
Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  the  Almighty  Designer. 

The  text  itself  is  a  compendium,  descriptive  of  the  various 
physical  features  of  the  earth  such  as  rivers,  oceans,  plains,  moun- 

>  Davis,  Wiixiam  Morkis,  and  Snyder,  William  Henry,  Physical  Geography,  1898. 
'  Brickleby,  John,  Elements  of  Physical  G»ography,  1867. 


THE  SCIENCES  171 

tains,  valleys,  and  the  like,  physical  phenomena  such  as  earthquakes 
and  volcanoes.  Part  V  is  devoted  to  meteorology  and  Part  VI 
to  geographical  zoology,  geographical  botany,  and  ethnology.  The 
religious  point  of  view  is  not  much  in  evidence  but  an  occasional 
reference  is  made  to  it  in  the  topic  title  "Proofs  of  Design."  It  is 
noticeable  that  while  the  author  in  his  chapter  on  ethnology  dis- 
cusses classification  as  to  races,  differences  in  anatomical  structure 
and  other  physical  features,  that  there  is  an  absence  of  any  attempt 
to  relate  these  topics  to  the  subject-matter  of  the  text  preceding 
this  chapter. 

Guyot's  text,^  published  a  little  later,  is  very  similar  to  the  one 
referred  to  above.  No  reference,  however,  is  made  to  the  religious 
phase  of  the  subject  either  in  the  preface  or  the  text  proper.  The 
same  character  of  subject-matter  is  emphasized  with  some  difference 
from  the  standpoint  of  classification.  The  following  statement  in 
the  preface  is  a  fair  classification  of  the  text  itself: 

In  every  part  of  the  work  a  strict  geographical  point  of  view  has  been  pre- 
served. From  the  kindred  sciences — geology,  natural  philosophy,  meteorology — 
only  such  facts  and  principles  have  been  borrowed  as  were  necessary  to  illustrate 
geographical  phenomena.  In  the  exposition  of  the  life  system,  the  associations 
of  plants,  animals,  and  races  of  men  in  geographical  groups,  characterizing  the 
great  natural  divisions  of  the  globe,  have  been  defined,  and  not  the  botanical, 
zoological,  or  ethological  classification. 

Houston's  book^  does  not  differ  from  Guyot's  in  any  essential 
particular.  The  author  claims  in  the  preface  to  have  omitted 
certain  unnecessary  details  and  to  have  added  certain  subjects 
"usually  omitted  in  works  on  Physical  Geography"  but  no  striking 
illustrations  are  found  in  the  book  either  of  omissions  or  additions. 
"Electrical  and  optical  phenomena"  receive  some  attention  and 
"cultivated  plants"  is  stressed  a  little  more  than  in  the  other  texts 
cited  above,  but  this  text  does  not  differ  essentially  from  them. 

Appleton's  Physical  Geography^  was  published  in  1887.  This 
book  is  a  compendium  written  by  several  authors.  Ten  are  named 
on  the  title-page  and  the  contributions  of  others  acknowledged  in 
the  preface.  This  would  indicate  that  it  was  a  book  prepared  by 
specialists  in  the  various  subjects  and  fields.  The  reason  given 
for  the  "new  and  original  plan"  is  stated  in  the  preface  as  follows: 

As  Physical  Geography  is  a  singularly  comprehensive  science,  requiring 
application  from  a  great  variety  of  cognate  sciences,  it  is  presumable  that  no  one 

»  GuYOT,  Arnold,  Physical  Geography,  1873. 

»  Houston,  Edwin  J.,  The  Elements  of  Physical  Geography,  187S. 

*  Appleton's  Physical  Geography;  Prepared  on  a  New  and  Original  Plan,  1887. 


172  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

author  possesses  the  depth  or  variety  of  knowledge  essential  to  the  preparation 
of  a  successful  textbook  on  the  subject,  especially  in  view  of  the  important  ad- 
vances recently  made  in  many  diverse  fields  of  inquiry  through  the  researches  of 
specialists. 

Special  features  of  the  book  are  referred  to  as  follows : 

The  most  recent  views  in  regard  to  vulcanology  and  earthquakes  are  pre- 
sented with  illustration  to  the  present  year.     The  theory  of  ocean  currents  is 

clearly  unfolded  in  the  light  of  the  latest  discoveries The  general  motions 

of  the  atmosphere  are  made  plain  by  the  application  of  Terrel's  Law;  while  the 
perplexities  environing  the  consideration  of  cyclonic  storms  are  more  thoroughly 
disentangled  than  in  other  American  school  books.  The  chapters  devoted  to 
geology,  botany,  zoology,  and  ethnology  will  be  found  as  fascinating  as  they 
are  instructive.* 

The  book  claims  scientific  accuracy  and  thoroughness  of  treatment 
of  the  various  subjects.  No  point  of  view  is  presented  except  that 
of  knowledge  for  its  own  sake  and  no  applications  attempted. 

The  text  by  Davis  and  Snyder,  already  referred  to,  presents  a 
new  point  of  view  in  the  teaching  of  physical  geography.  Quoting 
further  from  the  preface : 

Extraneous  subjects,  however  interesting  or  important  in  themselves,  such 
as  the  non-geographical  elements  of  astronomy,  the  principles  of  physics,  and 
the  divisions  of  geological  time,  are  carefully  excluded. 

An  analysis  of  the  book  under  such  headings  as  agriculture,  forests 
animals,  plants,  and  the  like,  shows  that  considerable  attention  is 
devoted  to  these  subjects  and  the  point  of  view  controls  as  stated 
in  the  preface.  The  older  books  discussed  in  detail  the  actual 
distribution  of  animals  and  plants.  This  text  shows  how  physical 
conditions  affect  such  distributions.  The  student  is  given  the 
point  of  view  at  the  outset  by  means  of  an  introduction  the  chapter 
title  being  "The  Relation  of  Man  to  the  Earth."  The  following 
are  other  chapter  titles  indicating  the  character  of  the  text,  "The 
Relation  of  Man  to  the  Climate;"  "The  Geographical  Control  of 
Population;"  "The  Lifelike  Behavior  of  Rivers." 

The  emphasis  throughout  the  book  is  upon  physical  conditions 
and  phenomena  in  their  relation  to  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man. 
A  comparison  of  this  book  with  Guyot's  or  Appleton's  reveals 
clearly  the  change  in  point  of  view  and  character  of  subject-matter. 
Since  this  book  did  not  come  into  use  until  the  very  last  years  of 

>  APiielon's  Physical  Geography  Prepared  on  a  New  and  Origirtal  Plan,  1887. 


THE  SCIENCES  173 

the  century,  the  other  books  cited  are  the  ones  that  determined 
almost  exclusively  the  character  of  instruction  in  physical  geog- 
raphy. From  the  standpoint  of  work  actually  done  in  the 
schools,  texts,  of  which  Davis'  and  Snyder's  book  is  an  example, 
belong  to  the  first  years  of  the  present  century. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

Under  this  general  head  are  included  history,  civics,  and  political 
economy.  Table  XIX  shows  that  there  was  an  increase  of  a  little 
more  than  a  year  in  the  time  devoted  to  this  field  from  1860  to 
1900.  This  increase  was  practically  all  given  to  history.  The  time 
devoted  to  civics  and  economics  remained  practically  unchanged, 
the  only  change  in  these  subjects  being  due  to  the  fact  that  an 
occasional  school  devoted  a  whole  year  to  one  or  the  other  and  that 
the  change  from  a  three-term  to  a  two-term  plan  had  a  tendency 
to  increase  the  time  from  one-third  year  to  one-half  year.  It  will 
be  seen  also  by  reference  to  Table  XIX  that  the  maximum  time 
doubled  and  that  the  minimum  increased  from  one-third  to  one  year. 

1.      HISTORY 

European  history,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  number  of 
schools  offering  it  and  also  in  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  it, 
received  a  larger  share  of  attention  than  did  United  States  history. 
The  character  of  the  subject-matter  in  the  former  did  not  undergo 
very  important  changes.  Different  types  of  subject-matter  are 
discoverable.  Continental  history  was  taught  under  various 
titles,  such  as  ancient,  medieval,  modern,  general,  universal,  and 
outlines  of  history.  These  titles,  however,  are  not  accurate  des- 
criptions of  the  character  of  material  emphasized.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  ancient  history  received  an  undue  proportion  of  attention 
regardless  of  the  title  of  the  textbook,  and  an  examination  of  texts 
leads  one  to  believe  that  the  titles  of  books  was  the  determining 
factor  in  giving  titles  to  the  courses.  The  texts  also  furnish  prac- 
tically the  only  reliable  source  of  information  concerning  the 
character  of  subject-matter. 

As  pointed  out  above,  ancient  history  received  an  undue  amount 
of  attention  throughout  the  entire  period.  There  was  an  occa- 
sional exception  to  this  in  a  textbook,  but  on  the  whole  the  above 
statement  holds  true.  Whatever  particular  emphasis  the  author 
may  have  employed,  the  matter  dealt  largely  with  political  history, 
with  a  good  deal  of  stress  upon  those  periods  in  which  the  countries 
were  engaged  in  war.     Comparatively  little  attention  was  given  to 

174 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  175 

the  economic  or  social  life  of  the  people,  and  education  was  almost 
entirely  ignored. 

One  of  the  earlier  books^  used  is  characteristic  of  the  texts  of 
that  date.  A  chronological  table  and  index  occupies  thirty-two 
pages  in  the  front  part  of  the  book,  and  on  examining  this,  one  is 
impressed  by  the  emphasis  placed  upon  wars  and  events  directly 
connected  with  them.  The  text  itself  shows  this  same  emphasis. 
About  one-half  of  this  book  is  devoted  to  what  the  author  calls 
"Ancient  and  Middle  History,"  and  the  balance  to  the  "Modern 
Period."  At  the  bottom  of  each  page  is  given  a  list  of  questions 
on  the  text.  These  questions  reveal  clearly  the  emphasis  upon 
political  and  military  history  in  all  the  periods  treated. 

Another  text^  which  was  still  in  use  after  1860,  as  shown  by  the 
printed  lists  of  textbooks,  shows  the  same  emphasis  as  Willard's 
upon  the  political  and  military  history.  This  book  devotes  three 
hundred  and  seventy-four  pages  to  the  history  of  the  Asiatic 
countries  and  the  remainder  to  Greece  and  Rome. 

As  stated  above,  history  material  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
standardized,  as  shown  by  the  textbooks.  Some  of  these  show 
that  the  authors  were  conscious  of  the  fact  that  material  other  than 
accounts  of  political  and  military  events  should  be  included  and 
incorporated  in  their  books.  One  of  these  was  the  text'  by  William 
Swinton.  Of  the  487  pages,  305  are  devoted  to  the  "History  of  the 
World  Preceding  the  Fifteenth  Century,"  67  pages  of  this  being 
given  to  the  Asiatic  peoples  and  the  balance  to  European.  The 
emphasis  in  this  book  is  clearly  upon  political  and  military  affairs, 
but  toward  the  close  he  devotes  some  attention  to  what  he  calls 
"The  Progress  of  Civilization,"  occupying  about  10  pages.  This 
consists  chiefly  of  the  names  of  philosophers  and  scientists  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Then  at  the  very  close  of  the  book  he  gives 
five  pages  to  great  names  of  the  nineteenth  century.  His  chrono- 
logical method  of  treatment  is  shown  by  the  analytic  synopses  for 
reviews,  which  are  provided  at  the  close  of  the  sections  devoted  to 
each  of  the  periods.  This  book  was  widely  used,  as  shown  by  the 
lists  of  textbooks  published  in  school  reports. 

1  WiLLASD,  Emua,  Universal  History:  Divided  into  Three  Periods,  Ancient,  Middle  and  Modern, 
1865. 

*  Goodrich,  S.  G.,  Complete  History  from  the  Creation  to  the  Fall  of  Rome,  1848. 

•Swinton,  William,  Outlines  of  the  World's  History,  Ancient,  Medieval  and  Modern  with  Special 
Relation  to  the  History  of  Civilization  and  Progress  of  Mankind,  1874. 


176  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Another  book^  of  this  same  general  type  treats  quite  exclusively 
political  and  military  events.  This  text,  as  well  as  the  others  above 
cited,  seems  to  lack  any  point  of  view  other  than  the  presentation 
of  a  great  array  of  events  chronologically  arranged. 

Barnes's  General  History^  is  rather  an  exception  to  the  books  of 
that  date  and  marks  a  beginning  of  a  movement  in  history-teaching 
receiving  considerable  attention  at  the  present  time.  There  is  an 
agreement  with  other  texts  from  the  standpoint  of  its  emphasis 
upon  ancient  history,  devoting  more  than  one-half  of  the  book  to 
this  period.  It  differs  in  that  considerable  attention  is  devoted  to 
what  the  author  calls  "Civilization,  Manners  and  Customs." 
Under  the  former  the  following  are  discussed:  society,  the  army, 
education,  literature,  libraries  and  writing  materials,  monuments 
and  art;  under  the  latter:  religion,  games  and  festivals,  marriage, 
burial  and  dress.  A  total  of  112  pages  are  devoted  to  "civiliza- 
tion," and  60  pages  to  "manners  and  customs."  Of  the  172  pages 
devoted  to  this  kind  of  material,  132  pages  are  taken  up  with  an 
account  of  the  civilization,  manners,  and  customs  of  the  ancient 
peoples,  only  40  pages  being  devoted  to  the  medieval  and  modern 
periods.  The  book,  however,  does  not  contain  less  material  of  the 
political  and  military  sort.  It  was  a  larger  book  than  was  in 
common  use  at  that  time  and  this  humanized  material  was  simply 
added. 

A  protest  against  this  sort  of  material  is  voiced  in  the  preface 
of  Anderson's  General  History.^  This  was  not  a  protest  against 
the  text  above  cited  since  the  two  books  came  out  almost  simul- 
taneously, but  it  is  very  likely  that  the  former  text  was  issued  to 
meet  a  popular  demand.  The  Anderson  text  was  also  issued  in  two 
volumes,  one  devoted  to  ancient  history  and  the  other  to  medieval 
and  modern  periods.     In  the  preface  to  the  General  History  he  says: 

There  has  been  for  some  time  a  growing  tendency  in  the  public  mind  to  study 
rather  those  things  that  directly  concern  the  life  of  the  people  as  such,  than  the 
facts  of  National  or  Political  History.  Certainly  this  department  of  knowledge 
has  a  most  fascinating  interest:  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  greater 
movements  of  mankind  are  connected  rather  with  the  nation,  than  their  social 
history:  and  hence  it  is  a  false  system  that  makes  the  former  subordinate  to  the 

J  QuACKENBOS,  John  D.,  Illustrated  School  History  oj  the  World  Jrom  the  Earliest  Ages  to  tlte  Present 
Time:  Accompanied  with  Numerous  Maps  and  Engravings,  1876. 

'  Barnes's  History.  A  Brie/  History  of  the  Medieval  and  Modern  Peoples  with  Some  Accounts  of  Their 
Movements,  Institutions,  Arts,  Manners  and  Customs. 

»  Anderson,  John  J.,  Manual  of  General  History  with  Particular  Attention  to  Ancient  and  Modern 
Civilization:  With  Numerous  Engravings  and  Maps  for  Use  in  Colleges,  High  Schools,  Academies,  etc.,  1882. 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  177 

latter The  old  masters  of  education,  though  more  severe  than  those  of 

the  present  time  in  their  imposition  of  tasks,  are  less  anxious  to  consult  the 
uncultured  palates  of  their  pupils.  Probably  on  that  account  they  imparted 
more  solid  and  enduring  accomplishments.  The  present  work  while  giving  a 
brief  sketch  to  the  history  of  every  nation  both  Ancient  and  Modern,  aims  also 
to  afford  in  a  pleasing  and  instructive  style  all  the  information  needed  by  the 
young  students.  In  regard  to  social  peculiarities  of  the  people  and  their  progress 
in  each  department  of  civilization,  care  has  been  exercised  to  keep  this  branch 
inside  of  its  just  limits. 

The  book  devotes  some  attention  to  what  he  calls  "civilization" 
particularly  of  the  ancient  period.  Practically  no  attention  is 
devoted  to  this  topic  in  modern  times.  The  text  as  a  whole  makes 
good  the  contention  of  the  author  cited  above  in  the  preface.  It  is 
essentially  a  political  and  military  history. 

A  book*  published  in  1885  is  very  different  in  method  of  treat- 
ment than  the  other  high-school  texts  of  that  time.  It  is  in  fact  a 
source  book  quoting  very  extensively  from  historical  sources.  The 
author  says  in  the  preface: 

This  book  is  not  a  history,  but  a  collection  of  historical  materials:  it  contains 
just  the  sort  of  things  historians  must  deal  with  when  they  want  to  describe  or 
judge  any  period  of  history,  and  just  the  kind  of  things,  moreover,  which  we 
Americans  must  constantly  attend  to.  In  Greek  History  it  gives  bare  chronology 
of  deeds,  pictures  of  buildings  and  statues,  extracts  from  speeches,  laws  and  poems. 
From  these  materials  you  must  form  your  own  judgment  of  the  Greeks,  discover 
their  style  of  thinking,  acting,  living,  feeling;  you  must  in  short  imagine  you 
yourself  there,  too,  writing  a  Greek  History,  or  that  you  are  a  Greek  citizen  called 
upon  to  judge  the  life  about  you.  This  helps  you  in  this  advantage,  inserted  in 
the  midst  of  material  such  questions  and  problems  which  the  Historian  or  citizen 
must  always  be  asking  himself,  or  rather  must  always  be  putting  to  the  laws, 
events,  poetry  and  ruins  which  he  studies,  whether  they  belong  to  peoples  and 
times  far  away  or  near  at  hand.  In  this  way  you  can  learn  to  judge  and  interpret 
what  you  see  before  you  in  your  own  country  and  help  to  make  of  America  that 
which  she  may  become. 

This  book  represents  no  point  of  view  apparently  which  would 
be  of  value  to  a  high-school  teacher  or  a  high-school  student.  In 
fact  it  is  primarily  a  collection  of  historical  matter  and  contains 
"just  the  sort  of  things  which  historians  deal  with." 

Quotations  from  sources  are  abundant.  For  example,  under 
the  general  title  "Studies  on  the  Athenian  Leadership"  several 
pages  are  devoted  to  stories  and  extracts  illustrative  of  the  period. 
Some  of  these  quotations  are  of  some  length  as  "Character  of  Peri- 
cles" [Plutarch],  "Funeral  Speech  of  Pericles  over  the  First  Dead 

'  Sheldon,  Mary  D.,  Studies  in  General  History,  1885. 


X 


178        THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

in  the  Peloponnesian  War"  [Thucydides],  and  "The  Defense  and 
Death  of  Socrates"  [Plato].  A  large  number  of  "Short  Quotations 
from  the  Tragedians"  are  given.  At  the  close  of  these  is  found  a 
summary  of  the  "Political  and  Military  and  Naval  Events."  This 
method  of  treatment  is  characteristic  of  the  entire  book.  The 
author  gives  some  interpretations  and  conclusions,  but  it  is  not  a 
textbook  in  the  usual  sense.  It  was  in  all  probability  an  attempt 
to  encourage  the  source  method,  sometimes  called  laboratory 
method,  in  history,  which  was  being  advocated  in  certain  quarters 
at  that  time.  It  is,  however,  the  only  book  of  its  kind  that  is 
listed  among  the  textbooks  used  in  the  high  school  as  shown  by  the 
printed  lists  found  in  the  courses  of  study,  and  its  method  of  treat- 
ment was  not  adopted  by  other  writers  of  textbooks. 

Myers's  texts  in  European  history  came  into  use  about  1885, 
and  during  the  period  1891-95  were  used  in  more  high  schools  than 
any  other  single  text  as  shown  by  lists  of  textbooks  published  in 
the  school  reports.  After  1895  they  were  used  more  than  all  other 
texts  combined.  The  General  History,^  after  its  publication, 
largely  displaced  the  earlier  works  by  the  same  author  as  indicated 
by  the  published  lists  referred  to  above.  The  printed  courses  of 
study  also  show  the  prevalence  of  the  term  "General  History"  as 
revealed  by  Tables  VII  and  VIII.  So  far  as  the  Myers'  texts  are 
concerned,  however,  the  subject-matter  is  not  materially  changed 
by  a  change  of  title.  In  the  preface  of  the  General  History  the 
author  says : 

This  volume  is  based  upon  my  Ancient  History  and  Medieval  and  Modern 
History.  In  some  instances  I  have  changed  the  perspective  and  the  proportions 
of  the  narrative,  but  in  the  main,  the  book  is  constructed  upon  the  same  lines  as 
those  drawn  for  the  earlier  work. 

The  influence  of  the  point  of  view  controlling  in  Willard's,  Swinton's, 
and  Anderson's  texts  is  evident  in  this  book  as  shown  by  the  empha- 
sis upon  political  and  military  history.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
material  against  which  the  author  of  the  latter  protests  is  given 
some  attention.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  this  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  done  as  an  afterthought  or  merely  in  response  to  a  popu- 
lar demand.  The  subject-matter  dealing  with  the  social  life,  art, 
commerce,  religion,  language,  etc.,  of  the  various  peoples  is  woven 
into  the  story  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  an  integral  part  of  it. 

»  Myers,  P.  V.  N.,  A  General  History  for  High  Schooh  and  Colleges,  1889. 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  179 

The  proportion  of  space  devoted  to  this  sort  of  material  is  not 
large,  although  during  the  Greek  period  it  received  considerable 
attention.  One  hundred  and  thirty-four  pages  are  devoted  to  the 
history  of  Greece  and  of  these,  forty-five  pages  are  given  to  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  painting,  literature,  philosophy,  science,  and 
social  life.  Under  the  last  topic  such  things  as  education,  banquets, 
occupation,  and  slavery  are  discussed.  Little  detail,  however,  is 
given,  as  indicated  by  the  number  of  general  topics  considered. 
The  chapter  devoted  to  Greek  philosophy  and  science  consists  chiefly 
of  biographies  of  noted  men.  Much  less  space  relatively  is  given, 
however,  to  those  phases  of  life  among  the  Romans,  and  still  less 
in  succeeding  periods.  A  short  account  is  given  of  the  Revival  of 
Learning  and  a  brief  notice  is  made  of  the  literature  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan Era.  The  book  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  the  Barnes  and 
Anderson  texts,  and  like  them,  the  amount  of  subject-matter 
devoted  to  political  and  military  history  is  not  decreased  as  com- 
pared with  texts  in  use  previous  to  1880.  The  movement  toward 
more  emphasis  upon  the  social,  industrial,  and  commercial  aspects 
of  history  gained  but  little  momentum,  and  the  development  of 
this  phase  of  history-teaching  belongs  to  the  period  lying  beyond 
the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  subject-matter  of  United  States  history  and  the  changes 
occurring  therein  need  but  brief  attention.  This  subject,  like 
arithmetic,  grammar,  and  physiology,  was  taught  in  the  upper 
grades  and  rural  schools  as  well  as  in  the  high  schools.  It  was  in 
fact  primarily  a  grade  subject,  and  textbooks  of  this  type,  as  shown 
by  the  published  lists  of  texts,  were  used  almost  exclusively  in  the 
high  schools. 

Table  XX  shows  that  it  was  a  short-time  subject  and  that  the 
time  devoted  to  it  remained  practically  unchanged.  Tables  II-IX, 
inclusive,  indicate  that  it  increased  somewhat  in  importance  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  number  of  schools  offering  it.  It  remained, 
however,  relatively  unimportant,  European  history  receiving  far 
more  consideration. 

One  of  the  characteristics  possessed  in  common  by  the  textbooks 
in  United  States  history  is  the  relatively  larger  amount  of  attention 
devoted  to  wars.  The  earlier  books  show  this  and  texts  published 
after  1860  reveal  the  influence  of  the  Civil  War  in  this  particular. 
Willard's^  text  devotes  about  one-fourth  the  entire  space  to  an 

1  WiLLARD,  EiniA,  Abridged  History  oj  the  United  States,  1853.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  First 
edition  published  in  1849. 


180  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

account  of  the  Revolutionary  War  and  more  than  twenty  pages 
to  the  War  of  1812.  About  forty  pages  are  devoted  to  the  Mexican 
War  and  the  Indian  and  Colonial  Wars  receive  a  large  share  of 
attention.  Political  history  occupies  the  remainder  of  the  book 
almost  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  everything  else,  particularly  after 
the  beginning  of  the  national  period. 

Wilson's  book^  was  very  similar  in  contents  and  method  of 
treatment.  It  was  a  larger  book  than  Willard's,  the  additional 
pages  being  devoted  to  an  account  of  the  Civil  War.  These  books 
are  mentioned  more  frequently  than  any  others  in  the  published 
lists  prior  to  1870. 

The  book  most  used  after  this  date  to  1890  was  Barnes's  Brief 
History  of  the  United  States.^  The  revised  edition  (1880)  contained 
three  hundred  and  two  pages  and  of  these  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty  were  devoted  to  the  Revolutionary,  Mexican,  and  Civil 
Wars.  In  addition  to  this,  detailed  accounts  are  given  of  Indian 
fighting  and  Indian  Wars.  As  in  the  texts  above  cited,  political 
history  is  stressed  to  the  neglect  of  social  and  industrial  affairs. 
This  book  is,  however,  a  departure  in  one  particular — the  inclusion 
in  footnotes  of  a  good  deal  of  material  tending  to  throw  light  upon 
and  add  interest  to  the  subject-matter  of  the  text  proper.  In 
enumerating  the  "general  methods  of  teaching  this  study"  the 
author  states: 

To  furnish  copious  notes  containing  collateral  facts,  minor  events,  sketches 
of  the  lives  of  presidents  and  noted  men,  and  especially  those  anecdotes  of  heroism 
and  devotion  that  so  brighten  the  record  of  our  national  growth.^ 

There  is  also  introduced  into  the  body  of  the  text  a  little  subject- 
matter  bearing  upon  the  daily  life  of  the  people  bearing  the  title, 
"Condition  of  the  Colonies."  This  occupies  seven  pages  and  such 
topics  as  the  laws  regulating  the  affairs  of  private  life,  manners  and 
customs,  and  education  are  discussed.  This  material  is  all  in  fine 
print  similar  to  the  footnotes  and  deals  only  with  colonial  life. 

The  Barnes  text  and  Montgomery's  "Leading  Facts  of  History 
Series"*  were  used  more  than  all  other  books^  combined  after  1870. 

1  Wilson,  Marcius,  History  of  the  United  States  from  the  Earliest  Discoveries  to  the  Close  of  the  Great 
Rebellion  in  1865.  Containing  also  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  with  Explanatory  Notes  and  Ques- 
tions, 1866. 

2  It  was  published  first  in  1871  and  revised  in  1879  and  1880. 
•  Ibid.,  Preface. 

«  Montgomery,  D.  H.,  The  Student's  American  History,  1897. 

'  The  Leading  Facts  of  American  History,  a  Grammar  School  text,  was  published  a  few  years  previous 
to  the  student's  edition.  Other  texts  in  use  did  not  differ  essentially  from  Barnes's  and  Montgomery's. 
Some  of  them  are:  Eggleston,  Edward,  A  History  of  the  United  States  and  Its  People,  1888;  Scott, 
David  B.,  A  School  History  of  the  United  States  (Harper's  School  History),  1870;  Scudder,  Horace  E., 
A  New  History  of  the  United  States,  1897;  Thaxheimer,  M.  E.,  An  Eclectic  History  of  the  United  Slates, 
1881. 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  181 

The  students'  edition  is  the  only  text  named  in  the  published 
lists  intended  primarily  for  high-school  use.  It  differs  from  the 
smaller  book^  only  in  the  following  particulars : 

It  is  much  fuller  in  its  treatment  of  political  and  constitutional  history,  and 
of  the  chief  events  bearing  upon  the  development  of  the  nation.  It  quotes  the 
statements  of  public  men,  original  documents,  and  authorities,  in  order  that  the 
history  of  our  country  may  speak  for  itself  on  the  points  of  greatest  interest  to 
the  student  and  the  teacher.^ 

This  book  contains  none  of  the  "anecdotes  of  heroism  and  devotion" 
found  in  the  Barnes  text  and  only  an  occasional  reference  to  indus- 
trial or  social  life. 

The  books  referred  to  above  show  clearly  that  the  political  and 
constitutional  point  of  view  controlled  in  history-teaching  to  the 
very  close  of  the  century.  The  slight  attention  given  after  1870 
to  social  and  industrial  life  does  not  indicate  any  essential  change 
in  aim,  or  materially  change  the  character  of  the  subject-matter. 

2.     CIVICS 

The  term  civics  is  a  recent  one.  Politics,  political  philosophy, 
constitution,  science  of  government,  and  civil  government  were 
the  more  common  terms  employed  throughout  the  most  of  the 
period.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  subject  increased  some- 
what in  importance  from  the  standpoint  of  the  number  of  schools 
offering  it  and  that  the  average  amount  of  time  devoted  to  it 
remained  practically  the  same.  The  only  change  affecting  the 
latter  being  the  shift  from  a  three-term  to  a  two-semester  plan. 
This,  of  course,  eliminated  the  practice  of  devoting  one-third  of  a 
year  to  a  subject  and  substituted  one-half  year.  This,  however, 
was  only  incidental  and  does  not  represent  an  increase  of  importance 
attached  to  the  subject. 

Instruction  in  civics  falls  into  two  fairly  well-defined  periods. 
The  first  of  these  is  characterized  by  an  emphasis  upon  the  formal, 
theoretical  aspect  of  the  subject.  The  work  during  the  first  period 
consisted  largely  of  interpretations  of  constitutions,  federal  and 
state,  and  the  texts  used  were  scarcely  more  than  analyses.  Prac- 
tically nothing  was  done  to  give  pupils  a  knowledge  of  government 
in  its  practical  workings,  or  to  teach  the  duties  of  citizens  except 
in  an  abstract,  formal  way.     Titles  of  some  of  the  early  books  are 

»  Montgomery,  D.  H.,  The  Students  American  History,  1879. 

*im. 


182  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

fair  indexes  of  the  contents  and  method  of  treatment.  The  title 
of  one  of  these  books/  The  Science  of  Government,  is  an  illustration. 
The  author  in  the  preface  quotes  Professor  F.  D.  Huntington  in  an 
address  before  the  Massachusetts  legislature  as  follows: 

It  is  absurd  that  pupils  should  go  through  their  whole  term  of  preparation 
for  life  committing  the  rules  of  grammar  and  rules  of  arithmetic,  to  the  total 
neglect  of  the  principles  of  legislation  under  which  they  are  to  live  or  to  the  facts 
of  the  country  to  which  they  belong,  and  of  the  constitution  of  their  liberties. 

He  adds  he  would  have  every  young  person 

carefully  and  conscientiously  taught  those  distinctive  ideas  which  constitute  the 
substance  of  our  Constitution,  and  which  determine  the  policy  of  our  politics 
....  and  to  this  end  there  ought  forthwith  to  be  introduced  in  our  schools  a 
simple  and  comprehensive  manual,  whereby  the  needed  tuition  should  be  planted 
at  that  early  period. 

The  book  is  in  fact  an  analysis  and  interpretation  of  the  federal 
constitution.  Enough  historical  material  is  introduced  to  furnish 
somewhat  of  a  background.  One  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  institu- 
tions of  the  several  states.  This  chapter,  however,  contains  little 
more  than  information  concerning  the  date  of  adoption  of  these 
constitutions,  then  some  comment  upon  the  distribution  of  powers 
among  the  several  departments  of  government,  and  the  scattered, 
unconnected  facts  concerning  the  length  of  residence  required  to 
be  a  voter,  meager  details  of  judicial  systems,  and  the  like.  Another 
chapter  is  devoted  to  international  law,  and  the  final  chapter  to  a 
brief  discussion  of  different  kinds  of  law  defined,  as  constitutional, 
international,  municipal,  statute,  and  common  law. 

Townsend's  Analysis  of  Civil  Government  came  into  use  at  about 
the  same  time  as  the  book  cited  above.  The  following  statement 
is  found  in  the  preface. 

The  Analytic  Method  of  this  work  furnishes  its  first  claim  of  superiority  over 
others  as  a  textbook  on  Civil  Government.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  is  our  fundamental  law.  To  understand  this  law  is  to  understand  the 
whole  theory:  and  to  analyze  this  is  to  analyze  the  entire  American  System. 
The  proper  aim  therefore  of  this  work  is  to  present  analytically  the  subject  of 

Civil   Government   as   administered   in   this   country In   the   tabular 

arrangement  in  the  sections  and  clauses  of  the  Constitution  nothing  is  omitted 
or  added,  and  as  far  as  possible  the  precise  language  of  that  document  is  retained. 

The  introduction  is  written  to  the  book  by  Rev.  James  E.  Lapham, 
in  which  he  says  in  part : 

He  has  drawn  the  materials  from  his  work  from  original  sources  and  from 
commentaries  and  from  classic  excellence.     We  see  traces  of  interminable  rura- 

J  AiDEN,  Joseph,  The  Science  of  Government  in  Connection  vnlh  American  Institutions,  1866. 
*  TowNSEND,  CoLvm,  Analysis  oj  Civil  Government,  1868. 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  183 

magings  of  The  Madison  Papers,  the  Federalist,  Elliott's  Debates,  Story  and 
Rawle  on  the  Constitution,  Kent's  and  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  as  well  as 
the  most  patient  learnings  from  official  statistical  and  chronological  tables. 

This  is  one  of  the  books  at  least  in  which  promises  made  in  the 
preface  are  rigorously  kept.  The  contents  of  the  book  itself  con- 
stitute an  analysis  of  the  constitution,  and  the  method  of  treatment 
further  emphasizes  that  point  of  view.  The  division  into  heads 
and  subheads  and  arrangement  of  material  on  the  page  all  add  in 
bringing  before  the  student  in  very  clear  outline  the  analytical 
method  of  treatment.  In  the  comments  that  are  made  it  is  evident 
that  the  statement  made  in  the  introduction  concerning  the  ma- 
terials from  commentaries  and  from  classic  excellences,  are  true. 
The  author,  as  the  title-page  indicates,  was  a  lawyer,  and  the 
lawyer's  point  of  view  is  evident  throughout  the  book.  A  glossary 
is  provided  at  the  close,  containing  a  long  list  of  definitions  of  legal 
terms.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this  book  was  not  a  pioneer  in  the  field 
as  an  examination  of  Alden's  text  above  referred  to  will  show.  It 
simply  placed  further  emphasis  upon  the  analytical  method  of 
treating  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  Another  book  of 
this  same  general  type  was  Andrews's  Manual  of  the  Constitution.^ 
The  author  indicates  in  the  preface  the  same  point  of  view  as  the 
other  books  just  described  contained,  as  the  following  will  show: 

The  proper  instruction  of  students  in  the  important  subject  of  Civil  Govern- 
ment, a  clearer  exposition  of  the  great  principles  of  the  Constitution,  is  met  with 
a  summary  of  the  legislative  Provisions  in  which  they  have  been  embodied. 

As  has  been  said,  this  book  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  those 
referred  to  above,  but  differs  in  two  particulars.  In  the  first  place, 
the  method  is  not  so  severely  analytical,  the  treatment  being  in 
descriptive  form,  and,  as  he  indicates  in  the  preface,  an  explanation 
is  given  to  the  "legislative  provisions,"  in  which  the  principles  of 
the  constitution  have  been  embodied.  In  the  second  place,  the 
book  contains  some  historical  information  which  has  the  constitu- 
tion as  a  background.  For  example,  in  the  discussion  of  the 
executive  department,  he  gives  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  presidents 
up  to  date.  This  also  was  followed  by  lists  of  the  names  of  the 
secretaries  of  the  various  executive  departments.  He  devotes  a 
short  chapter  to  state  governments,  but  this  information  is  very 
much  condensed  and  fragmentary.     In  the  appendix  he  gives  in 

>  Akdk£W8,  Israel  Warren,  Manual  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  1874. 


184  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

full  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
the  Ordinance  of  1787,  and  the  Federal  Constitution. 

The  type  of  instruction  represented  by  these  books  above  cited 
certainly  continued  to  about  1885  or  a  little  after.  There  is,  how- 
ever, some  sign  of  change  of  point  of  view  in  the  textbooks  pub- 
lished a  little  before  1880.  This  formal  type  of  instruction  however 
prevailed  throughout  the  most  of  the  period  through  the  use  of  the 
older  type  of  books  in  many  schools. 

The  second  period  is  marked  by  an  emphasis  upon  state  and 
local  government,  and  while  the  legal  point  of  view  is  the  prevailing 
one,  the  emphasis  upon  constitutions  and  the  analytical  method 
of  treatment  no  longer  completely  dominates.  One  of  the  books 
which  represents  a  short  step  in  advance  in  this  particular  was 
Martin's  Civil  Government.^  This  text  was  in  no  sense  a  radical 
departure  since  the  organization  and  method  of  treatment  reveals 
the  predominance  of  the  old  ideal  in  teaching  civil  government. 
There  was,  however,  a  tendency  manifested  to  give  more  attention 
to  a  discussion  of  the  functions  of  government  and  less  to  mere 
constitutional  and  legal  principles,  and  also  to  give  a  place,  although 
a  very  subordinate  one,  to  state  and  local  governments. 

Two  books^  came  into  use  after  1885  that  represent  the  new 
point  of  view — viz.,  emphasis  upon  the  function  of  government 
and  more  attention  to  the  smaller  units  of  government.  McCleary's 
text  reverses  the  accustomed  order  of  treatment  in  that  it  begins 
with  a  discussion,  covering  about  sixty  pages,  of  local  forms  and 
functions  of  government.  The  author  takes  up  the  town,  village, 
city,  and  county.  Another  feature  of  this  book  is  the  introduction 
of  a  brief  discussion  of  commercial  law.  This  subject  occupies 
twenty  pages.  These  two  features  distinguish  this  book  very 
clearly  from  the  texts  published  before  1885.  The  balance  of  the 
book,  however,  is  devoted  largely  to  the  constitutional  type  of 
material  and  really  belongs  to  the  old  order  of  textbooks.  In  the 
preface ^the  author  says : 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  not  a  mere  abstract  of  it  but  a  careful 
study  of  the  text,  is  properly  given  much  space  but  is  not  allowed  a  monopoly 
of  it. 

It  is  perhaps  not  allowed  a  monoply  but  certainly  receives  a  large 
share  of  attention. 

I  Martin,  George  H.,  A  Text-Book  on  Civil  Government,  1875. 

*  McCleary,  J.  F.,  Studies  in  Civics,  1888  and  Dole,  Charles  F.,  The  American  Citizen,  1891. 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  185 

In  Dole's  book  a  new  note  is  sounded  in  the  preface  as  follows: 

There  seems  to  be  a  growing  demand  for  the  more  adequate  teaching  of 
morals  in  the  schools,  especially  with  reference  to  the  making  of  good  citizens. 
But  it  is  difficult  to  teach  morals  directly  or  apart  from  the  concrete  subjects 
about  which  moral  questions  grow.  Neither  can  sound  morals  be  taught  at  all 
without  a  touch  of  enthusiasm. 

We  have,  however,  in  the  great  and  interesting  subjects  of  the  conduct  of 
governments,  business  and  society  precisely  the  kind  of  material  to  furnish  us 
indirectly  with  innumerable  examples.  The  consideration  of  the  public  good, 
the  welfare  of  the  nation,  or  the  interests  of  mankind,  lies  in  the  very  region  where 
patriotic  emotion  and  moral  enthusiasm  are  most  naturally  kindled. 

He  says  further: 

Every  intelligent  boy  or  girl,  indeed,  may  be  presumed  to  wish  to  know  the 
facts  about  the  government  of  our  country  and  our  social  institutions.  The 
object  of  this  book,  however,  is  not  merely  to  state  these  facts,  but  also  to  illus- 
trate the  moral  principles  that  underlie  the  life  of  civilized  man It  will 

be  obvious  to  the  intelligent  teacher  that  the  kind  of  study  which  this  book  is 
designed  to  serve  must  not  be  made  mere  task  work.  The  main  hope  of  its  useful- 
ness is  by  awakening  the  interest  of  students  and  stimulating  them  to  think  and 
talk  about  the  various  subjects  considered. 

The  book  is  a  radical  departure  from  the  books  that  preceded 
it  and  represents  a  very  different  point  of  view  and  emphasis,  as 
shown  by  the  quotations  from  the  preface,  and  the  text  itself  fulfils 
the  promise  of  the  preface.  It  is  divided  into  five  parts,  and  each 
part  presents  the  rights  and  duties  of  citizenship  from  a  particular 
angle.  Part  I  deals  in  general  with  the  "Beginning  of  Citizenship." 
The  chapters  deal  with  the  family,  the  school,  the  playground, 
clubs  and  debating  societies,  the  principles  that  bind  men  together, 
the  different  duties  that  men  owe  each  other  and  the  like.  Part  II 
deals  with  "The  Citizen  and  the  Government;  or  the  Rights  and 
Duties  of  Citizens."  Topics  discussed  in  the  several  chapters  are 
the  purpose  and  forms  of  government,  local  government,  cities 
and  their  government,  the  machinery  of  government,  the  judicial 
branch  of  the  government,  the  treasury  and  the  taxes,  the  school 
system,  voting,  and  so  on.  Part  III  deals  with  "Economic  Duties; 
or  the  Rights  and  Duties  of  Business  and  Money."  Under  this 
general  head  some  of  the  topics  discussed  are  as  follows:  wealth, 
its  nature,  conditions  of,  to  whom  it  belongs,  honest  money,  labor 
and  competition,  the  grievances  of  the  poor.  Part  IV  takes  up 
"Social  Rights  and  Duties;  or  the  Duties  of  Men  as  they  Live 
Together  in  Society."  Under  this  are  discussed  the  rights  and 
duties  of  neighbors,  the  treatment  of  crime  (not  from  a  legal  but  a 


186  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

social  point  of  view),  how  to  help  the  poor,  and  the  problem  of 
temperance.  Part  V  is  devoted  to  "International  Duties;  or  the 
Rights  and  Duties  of  Nations."  This  general  topic  is  divided  into 
sub-international  law  and  how  it  grows,  the  rights  of  nations,  the 
duties  of  nations,  and  war,  arbitration,  and  patriotism. 

The  book  is  written  in  simple  language.  The  style  is  attractive, 
and  in  both  content  and  method  of  treatment  is  suited  to  the 
interests  and  abilities  of  high-school  students. 

A  book^  published  just  at  the  opening  of  the  present  century, 
while  not  belonging  strictly  to  the  period  covered  by  our  study, 
shows  the  influence  of  the  point  of  view  so  clearly  revealed  in  the 
book  just  discussed.  This  text  reveals  something  of  the  old  legis- 
lative viewpoint;  it  represents  nothing  of  the  constitutional  mode 
of  treatment,  and  deals  largely  with  the  concrete  relationships  of 
the  people  as  these  relate  to  keeping  order,  making  laws,  providing 
schools,  maintaining  roads,  transportation  and  distribution  of  mail, 
collection  and  spending  taxes  and  the  like. 

In  view  of  the  textbooks  used  quite  exclusively  up  to  1890  and 
the  persistence  of  some  of  these  until  1900,  it  is  clear  that  the 
civics  teaching  was  entirely  dominated  by  the  legislative  point  of 
view  until  the  former  date,  and  that  the  influence  of  this  was  felt 
to  the  very  close  of  the  century.  A  new  order  of  things,  however, 
had  been  initiated  to  be  worked  out  more  completely  in  the  early 
years  of  the  present  century. 

3.      ECONOMICS 

Economics,  or  political  economy,  has  not  held  as  important  a 
place  in  the  high-school  curriculum  as  civics.  This  is  clearly  shown 
by  Tables  II-IX  and  also  by  Table  X.  The  increase  of  importance 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  number  of  schools  offering  it  was  con- 
siderable as  shown  by  Table  X.  The  time  devoted  to  it  remained 
practically  constant,  the  only  change  of  any  consequence  being  due 
to  a  slight  increase  brought  about  by  a  change  from  the  three-term 
to  the  two-term  plan  of  organization. 

The  teaching  of  the  subjects  falls  into  two  periods  not  very  well 
defined  in  point  of  time.  The  first  is  marked  by  an  emphasis  upon 
principles  or  the  philosophical  aspect  of  the  subject.  Wayland's 
text,2  although  published  nearly  twenty  years  before  the  beginning 
of  the  period  covered  by  this  study,  was  still  in  use  as  late  as  1875. 

»  Clakk,  S.  T.,  The  Government— W hat  It  Is  and  What  It  Does,  1902. 
•  Wayland,  Francis,  The  Elements  of  Political  Economy,  1841. 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  187 

In  fact,  it  was  the  only  text  mentioned  previous  to  1870  in  the  Hsts 
of  texts  examined.  In  the  preface  of  the  edition  cited  the  author 
says: 

When  the  author's  attention  was  first  directed  to  the  Science  of  Political 
Economy,  he  was  struck  with  the  simplicity  of  its  principles,  the  extent  of  its 
generalizations  and  the  readiness  with  which  its  facts  seemed  capable  of  being 
brought  into  natural  and  methodical  arrangement. 

The  text  bears  abundant  evidence  that  the  above  quotations  repre- 
sent the  controlling  point  of  view.  It  is  a  discussion  of  principles 
which  are  of  the  abstract  sort,  the  generalizations  are  based  upon 
abstractions,  and  the  treatment  is  methodical  although  the  method 
was  evidently  borrowed  from  the  field  of  philosophy  of  that  time. 
He  says  in  the  preface : 

The  principles  of  Political  Economy  are  so  closely  analogous  to  those  of 
Moral  Philosophy  that  almost  every  question  in  the  one  may  be  argued  on  the 
grounds  belonging  in  the  other.  He  has  not,  however,  thought  it  proper  in 
general  to  intermingle  them,  but  has  argued  economical  questions  on  merely 
economical  grounds. 

In  spite  of  the  promise  made  in  the  last  sentence,  the  method  of 
treatment  smacks  of  the  philosophical  point  of  view.  Political 
philosophy  certainly,  if  not  moral  philosophy,  entered  into  not  only 
the  method  of  treatment,  but  also  the  contents.  The  book  contains 
"in  substance  the  Lectures  on  Political  Economy  which  have  been 
delivered  for  some  years  past  to  the  Senior  class  in  Brown  Univer- 
sity." This  will  indicate  the  method,  treatment,  and  also  the 
degree  of  difficulty  which  high-school  students  would  encounter  in 
an  attempt  to  master  it. 

Another  text^  which  was  evidently  not  written  specifically  for 
high-school  students  was  Champlin's  Political  Economy.  In  the 
preface  the  author  states: 

It  is  prepared  for  "schools"  as  well  as  "colleges"  because  the  author  believes 
that  a  science  so  practical  and  essential  to  all  classes  of  society  should  be  more 
generally  studied  in  our  schools.  There  is  nothing  in  the  science  above  the 
comprehension  and  mastery  of  the  average  scholars  in  our  academies  and  high 
schools At  the  same  time,  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  not  be  found  inade- 
quate to  the  wants  of  college  classes. 

The  book  is  more  modern  than  Wayland's  in  that  it  contains 
practically  none  of  the  material  belonging  more  strictly  to  political 
science,  and  there  is  given  to  the  subject  a  more  distinctive  eco- 

»  Chas£Plin,  J.  F.,  Lessons  in  Political  Economy,  Designed  as  a  Basis  for  Instruction  in  that  Science  in 
Schools  and  Colleges,  1868. 


188  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

nomic  emphasis  throughout  the  text.  It,  however,  is  very  similar 
to  the  older  book  in  discussing  almost  wholly  abstract  principles 
and  in  its  formal  descriptive  style.  The  lack  of  concreteness  is 
marked,  and  this  was  no  doubt  intended  as  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing quotation  from  the  preface : 

It  is  believed  that  they  (the  lessons)  contain  all  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  science,  and  all  indeed  that  are  required  in  a  general  course  of  education. 
Subordinate  principles  and  details  can  be  added  by  the  teacher;  but  if  the  princi- 
ples here  presented  are  mastered,  the  student  will  have  a  competent  knowledge 
of  the  science  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

The  influence  of  Wayland's  point  of  view  and  of  the  text  itself 
is  revealed  by  a  book  published  in  1878.^  On  the  front  cover  of  the 
book  are  the  words,  Wayland  Series  Political  Economy,  Wayland — 
Chapin  and  in  the  preface  the  following  reference  is  made  to  the 
author  of  the  older  book : 

His  effort  was  attended  with  remarkable  success  and  no  other  textbook  on 
the  subject  has  gained  such  general  acceptance  and  been  so  extensively  and  con- 
tinuously read. 

After  referring  to  the  fact  that  "many  practical  problems  of  political 
economy  have  come  to  be  studied  in  a  new  light"  Chapin  says: 

While  these  things  have  caused  little  change  in  the  real  elements  of  the 
science  as  presented  by  our  author  they  demand  that  as  a  text-book  of  instruction 
adapted  to  our  times,  his  work  should  be  very  considerably  modified.^ 

This  review  in  part  consists  of  new  material  such  as  gold  and  silver 
and  the  double  standard,  politics,  and  the  enlargement  of  the  dis- 
cussion of  credit  in  its  various  forms,  and  railway  corporations. 
The  subjects  of  free  trade  and  protection  receive  extended  con- 
sideration, and  banks  and  currency  are  treated  in  detail.  In 
method  of  treatment,  however,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
content,  the  books  are  much  alike. 

Walker's  text^  marks  somewhat  of  a  transition  in  that  it  devotes 
about  a  hundred  pages  to  "Some  Applications  of  Economic  Princi- 
ples," while  the  subtopics  under  this  general  head  are  similar  to 
those  treated  in  the  older  books.  The  application  of  the  principles 
is  practical  and  concrete.  The  failure  to  distinguish  between  the 
need  of  college  and  high-school  students  is  not  recognized,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  statements  in  the  preface : 

This  work  has  been  abridged  from  the  third  edition  of  my  Manual  of  Political 
Economy  published  in  1883.     The  object  in  view  has  been  to  present  a  text-book 

>  Wayland,  Francis,  The  Elements  oj  Political  Economy.    Recast  by  Aaron  L.  Chapin,  1878. 

*Ibid. 

»  Walker,  Francis  A.,  Political  Economy  (Briefer  Course),  1884. 


THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  189 

adapted  to  use  in  colleges  and  academies  where  but  one  term  is  devoted  to  the 
study  of  Political  Economy. 

Later  The  Elements  of  Political  Economy^  by  the  same  author  was 
issued.  This  book  was  little  more  than  an  abridgment  of  his 
Political  Economy  and  was  widely  used  in  the  high  schools.  These 
books  really  marked  the  transition  from  the  old  to  the  new  point 
of  view,  and  other  texts  such  as  Bullock's''  made  the  transition 
complete. 

The  following  quotation  from  the  preface  of  the  Bullock  text 
represents  the  point  of  view : 

This  work  is  designed  for  an  introductory  text-book  of  Economic  Science. 
The  first  three  chapters  aim  to  familiarize  the  student  with  an  orderly  treatment 
with  some  leading  facts  of  the  Economic  history  of  the  United  States  before  the 
study  of  Economic  theory  is  commenced.  Throughout  the  book  economic 
principles  are  discussed  with  special  reference  to  American  conditions  and  their 
workings  are  illustrated  by  frequent  allusions  to  American  experience. 

The  historical  background,  dealing  with  the  facts  of  Economic 
History  and  the  illustration  of  principles  by  "frequent  allusions  to 
American  experience,"  marks  the  complete  transition  from  the 
formal  and  theoretical  to  the  concrete  and  scientific  method  of 
treatment.  The  emphasis  which  the  author  places  upon  money 
and  credit,  and  also  his  concrete  method  of  treatment,  indicate 
clearly  the  interest  manifested  in  free  silver  issue  of  that  time. 
His  treatment  of  monopolies,  socialism,  the  economic  function  of 
government,  and  the  like,  further  illustrate  the  practical  point  of 
view  and  the  changes  which  had  then  taken  place  in  the  subject- 
matter  of  political  economy. 

'  Waiker,  Francis  A.,  The  Elements  of  Political  Economy,  1884. 

*  Bullock,  Charles  Jesse,  Introduction  to  the  Study  oj  Economics,  1897. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FOREIGN  LANGUAGE  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS 
1.      FOREIGN  LANGUAGE 

No  changes  of  importance  occurred  in  the  teaching  of  foreign 
languages  so  far  as  subject-matter  is  concerned.  The  amount  of 
material  offered  evidently  remained  about  the  same  except  as 
affected  by  increase  of  time  devoted  to  it.  Even  this  increase  in 
time  did  not  mean  a  proportional  increase  in  amount  of  material. 
For  example,  in  the  case  of  Latin  the  earlier  three-year  courses 
appear  to  have  covered  approximately  the  same  ground  as  the 
later  four-year  courses.  This  is  shown  by  comparing  the  data  in 
Table  A  with  that  of  succeeding  tables.  The  earlier  practice  of 
requiring  but  three  subjects  to  be  carried  by  the  student  instead  of 
the  requirement  of  four  subjects  in  the  later  years  would  account 
for  doing  the  same  amount  of  work  in  any  subject  in  a  shorter  time. 

It  is  also  evident  that  there  were  no  important  changes  in  the 
character  of  the  subject-matter  taught  in  any  of  the  foreign  lan- 
guages. The  grammatical  method  of  teaching  prevailed  prac- 
tically without  exception  as  shown  by  the  textbooks  used.  The 
technique  of  teaching  particularly  in  the  ancient  languages  had 
been  worked  out  in  the  older  types  of  schools  and  both  method  and 
subject-matter  were  taken  over  by  the  high  schools.  The  modern 
languages  seem  to  have  been  inherited  in  the  same  way.  At  any 
rate,  the  same  method  in  teaching  and  the  same  character  of  sub- 
ject-matter was  emphasized.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  in 
Chapter  ii  the  extent  to  which  the  grammatical  method  prevailed 
in  the  teaching  of  English.  Its  effect  upon  the  teaching  of  modern 
language  was  even  more  marked. 

Greek  is  almost  negligible  so  far  as  the  number  of  schools 
offering  it  are  concerned  at  the  close  of  the  period.  The  amount 
of  subject-matter  offered  in  the  few  schools  that  still  taught  it 
remained  the  same  as  in  1860  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  even  the 
slightest  change  in  the  character  of  material.  The  Grammar  and 
Reader,^  the  Anabasis,  and  the  Iliad  made  up  the  course.  No  other 
subject-matter  is  mentioned  in  the  printed  courses  of  study. 

*  Ustially  Goodwin's  text. 

190 


FOREIGN  LANGUAGE  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS       191 

The  history  of  Latin  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Greek.  The 
First-Book,  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  Virgil  constituted  the  work  except 
for  minor  modifications.^  In  the  early  years  an  occasional  school 
offered  Sallust,  Nepos,  and  Horace,  but  this  practice  was  not 
general  and  soon  ceased  entirely.  The  fixed  order  was  a  first-year 
book,  followed  by  Caesar,  and  this  usually  by  Cicero  and  Virgil  in 
the  order  named.  Occasionally  Virgil  would  precede  Cicero  as 
shown  by  the  courses  of  study.  So  far  as  the  work  in  Latin,  after 
the  first  year  is  concerned,  the  courses  of  study  show  conclusively 
that  no  change  in  the  character  of  subject-matter  took  place. 

It  remains  then  to  consider  only  the  work  of  the  first  year  and 
the  textbooks  furnish  a  reliable  source  of  information.  The  books 
from  first  to  last  consist  chiefly  of  grammar  and  exercises  for  use 
in  drill.  One  of  the  noticeable  things  about  these  exercises  is  the 
large  amount  of  material  selected  from  Caesar's  Commentaries  on 
the  Gallic  War.  The  reason  for  this  no  doubt  was  that  it  furnished 
excellent  material  for  grammatical  drill  and  also  afforded  specific 
preparation  for  the  work  of  the  second  year.  One  of  the  older 
reading  books^  shows  this  same  emphasis  upon  Caesar.  Another 
book'  published  about  ten  years  later  devotes  twenty-two  pages  of 
the  seventy-one  pages  (exclusive  of  notes,  vocabularies,  etc.)  to  the 
Helvetian  War.  In  addition  to  this,  extracts  from  the  commen- 
taries are  abundant. 

Leighton's  Latin  Lessons^  contains  no  less  material  chosen  from 
Caesar  than  the  books  cited,  but  additional  reading  matter  is  pro- 
vided consisting  of  biographical  sketches  and  stories.  The  follow- 
ing statement  is  made  in  the  preface : 

The  Reading  Lessons  which  follow  are  largely  made  up  from  modern  Latin — 
a  few  Fables  from  Aesop  and  extracts  from  Viri  Romae — owing  to  the  almost 
absolute  lack  in  classic  authors  of  matter  at  once  simple  in  style  and  suitable  for 
elementary  practice.  These  are  followed  by  Woodford's  Epitome  of  the  First 
Book  of  the  Gallic  War,  which  gives  the  main  thread  of  the  narrative  in  Caesar's 
own  words,  omitting  the  parenthetical  clauses. 

These  two  classes  of  material,  after  1860,  with  the  emphasis  upon 
selections  from  Caesar,  constitute  the  reading  lessons  of  first-year 
texts. 

*  See  Appendix,  Tables  A-H.  If  the  columns  contain  figures  or  are  numbered  thus  x  it  indicates 
that  the  subject  named  in  the  margin  was  taught.     The  mark  thus  o  indicates  no  specification. 

>  The  New  Liber  Primus,  1858. 

*  Allen,  Wm.  F.,  and  Allen,  J.  H.,  Lalin  Lessons  Adapted  to  the  Latin  Grammar.  Fourth  Edition, 
1869. 

*  Leighton,  R.  F.,  Latin  Lessons  Adapted  to  Allen  and  Greenough's  Latin  Grammar,  1872. 


192  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Two  first-year  books  in  common  use  were  First  Lessons  in  Latin^ 
and  the  Beginner's  Latin  Book.^  The  former  shows  the  emphasis 
in  the  title  upon  preparation  for  work  in  Caesar  and  the  text  itself 
furnished  evidence  of  the  same  fact.  Collar  and  Daniell's  text  is 
apparently  intended  to  serve  the  purpose  of  both  grammar  and 
reader  and  the  material  in  reading  is  relatively  less  extensive.  It 
does  not,  however,  differ  essentially  in  character  from  that  found 
in  the  Jones  text. 

One  thing  that  indicates  very  clearly  the  fact  that  the  character 
of  the  work  in  first-year  Latin  remained  practically  unchanged  was 
the  wide  use  of  Harkness'  text.  This  book  appears  in  every  list 
made  up  from  the  printed  courses  of  study  from  1860  to  1900.  The 
first-year  books  already  mentioned  did  not  differ  in  any  essential 
particular  from  the  Harkness  Grammar  and  Reader  except  in  some 
reduction  in  the  details  of  Latin  grammar. 

The  modern  languages  apparently  have  a  history  very  similar 
to  that  of  Latin  from  the  standpoint  of  character  of  subject-matter 
and  method  of  treatment.  Since  it  was  usual  to  offer  but  two 
years  and  in  some  schools  but  a  single  year  as  shown  by  Tables  A-H, 
the  work  consisted  chiefly  of  grammar  and  exercises  for  gramma- 
tical drill.  The  grammar  translation  method  rather  than  the 
so-called  natural  or  the  direct  method  has  prevailed.  Professor 
Handschin  has  the  following  to  say  as  late  as  1912: 

Our  readers,  texts,  and  for  the  most  part,  our  grammars  are  not  adapted  to 
the  direct  method  of  teaching.' 

In  speaking  of  the  teaching  of  German,  he  says: 

Consider  a  typical  two  year  high  school  course  as  we  find  it  today.  It  con- 
feists  of  (beside  the  grammar  and  reader)  ....  let  us  say  of  Immensee 

Next  follows  L'Arrabbiata,  a  gem  of  literature,  but  an  eratic  story  of  Italian  life 
that  has  nothing  German  about  it  but  the  language.  Then  follows  a  long  prose 
tale  or  at  best  a  short  modern  comedy,  and  Wilhelm  Tell  and  the  course  is  finished. 

Since  the  course  consisted  of  grammar  and  reading,  Immensee  and 
Wilhelm  Tell  were  no  doubt  common  throughout  the  period  covered 
by  this  study  as  shown  by  the  printed  lists  of  texts  contained  in 
the  school  reports.  The  German  readers  such  as  Sheldon's,  and 
grammars  (Worman's  and  Heidner's  are  examples)  show  the 
emphasis  upon  grammatical  drill  and  that  the  reading  matter  is 
selected  primarily  for  its  value  in  this  particular. 

>  Jones,  Elisha,  First  Lessons  in  Latin,  1877. 

•Collar,  William  C.,and  Daniell,  M.  G.,  The  Beginner's  Latin  Book,  1886. 

•Handschin,  C.  H.,  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  United  States,  1912. 


FOREIGN  LANGUAGE  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS       193 
2.      THE  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS 

These  occupied  only  a  secondary  place  in  the  curriculum  and 
information  is  meager  concerning  the  details  of  subject-matter  and 
method  of  treatment. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of 
the  commercial  subjects  in  Part  I,  they  were  comparatively  negligi- 
ble until  the  last  decade  of  the  period.  Bookkeeping  was  taught 
from  the  first  and  thus  constituted  the  chief,  and  in  most  schools 
the  only,  commercial  subject  taught.  A  few  schools  list  business 
forms,  but  the  information  available  concerning  the  nature  of  this 
work  indicates  that  it  was  only  a  part  of  bookkeeping.  In  the 
school  report^  of  Newark,  Ohio,  the  principal  says : 

For  some  time  there  has  been  a  demand  in  this  city  that  the  high  school 
should  give  to  its  members  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  business  forms.  To 
meet  this  demand  as  an  elective  study  alternate  with  Political  Economy,  a  course 
with  recitations  is  provided  three  times  a  week  throughout  the  year  in  the  D 
High  School. 

The  commercial  arithmetic  differed  but  little  from  the  other 
texts  used.  The  commercial  texts  were  little  more  than  the  usual 
grammar-school  books  with  a  slight  emphasis  upon  the  class  of 
problems  involving  commercial  transactions. 

There  is  no  evidence  revealed  by  a  study  of  the  school  reports 
that  what  was  later  called  business  English  received  any  attention. 
The  so-called  commercial  courses  were  for  the  most  part  made  up 
of  subjects  only  remotely  connected  with  training  for  business  of 
any  sort.  Stenography  and  typewriting  were  taught  in  a  few 
schools  after  1890.  The  whole  field  of  commercial  education  so 
far  as  the  high  schools  were  concerned,  remained  practically  un- 
developed until  after  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

Of  the  industrial  subjects  only  manual  training  is  listed  in  the 
high-school  curricula  and  this  only  in  a  small  percentage  of 
schools  at  the  very  close  of  the  period.  It  is  probable  that  no 
textbooks  were  used  since  none  are  mentioned  in  the  published 
lists  of  high-school  texts.  The  courses  of  study  indicate  the  lines 
of  work  and  from  these  one  can  gain  a  general  idea  of  the  character 
of  the  work. 

»  Bi-annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Newark,  Ohio,  Public  Schools,  1881  and  1882,  p.  27. 


194  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Appleton,  Wisconsin,  oflfered  work  in  manual  training  in  1887. 
The  following  statement  is  found  in  a  footnote  to  the  printed 
course  of  study: 

A  department  of  Manual  Training  has  been  added.  This  includes  bench 
work,  wood  carving  and  mechanical  drawing.     This  course  is  optional.* 

The  character  of  the  work  and  also  the  point  of  view  in  teaching 
manual  training  in  the  Chicago  schools  in  1886  is  shown  by  the 
following  statement  of  the  superintendent : 

Much  attention  and  discussion  has  been  given  to  this  question  during  the 
year  and  it  was  determined  to  make  an  experimental  beginning  this  present  year. 
A  convenient  room  has  been  furnished  with  benches  and  tools  for  pupils  of  the 
first  grade  in  the  high  schools.  Some  seventy  pupils  are  at  present  engaged  in 
mechanical  drawing  and  bench  work  in  the  afternoon.  The  interest  manifested 
and  the  progress  made  has  thus  far  exceeded  our  highest  expectations.  The 
greatest  benefit  of  this  work,  in  my  opinion,  is  the  habit  of  industry  and  the 
dignifying  of  labor.  The  study  of  things  rather  than  of  words  and  the  application 
of  philosophical  principles  of  daily  labor  is  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked.* 

He  states  further  that  bench  work  should  not  begin  much  earlier 
than  the  high  school  and  doubts  whether  work  in  iron  should  be 
introduced.  His  objection  is  that  it  would  be  expensive  and  would 
probably  not  receive  popular  approval. 

The  rapid  development  of  the  work,  however,  is  shown  by  a 
statement  of  the  superintendent  in  the  Report  of  1888  as  follows: 

For  the  first  year  the  pupils  have  carpenter  work  with  free  hand  and  mechani- 
cal drawing;  for  the  second  year  they  have  wood  turning,  pattern  making,  mech- 
anical drawing,  modeling,  molding,  and  casting  of  soft  metals.' 

In  discussing  the  work  further  he  says: 

We  have  drawing,  freehand  and  mechanical,  nice  geometrical  constructions, 
the  graphic  solution  of  problems,  geographical  and  historical  illustrations;  with 
much  work  in  botany  and  chemistry  requiring  accurate  observation  and  nice 
manipulation.^ 

The  following  concerning  the  work  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  shows 
the  way  in  which  it  was  introduced  and  also  its  character: 

Manual  Training  in  Cleveland  was  started  in  February,  1885.  A  small 
carpenter  shop  was  opened  in  a  barn  near  the  Central  High  School  for  the  benefit 
of  the  boys  in  that  school.  The  same  year  a  stock  company  of  Cleveland  business 
men  was  incorporated  to  build  a  manual  training  school  for  the  interests  of  the 

>  Annual  Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools,  1886-87,  p.  19. 

*  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1886,  pp.  56-57. 
»  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1888,  p.  80. 

♦  Ibid.,  p.  86. 


FOREIGN  LANGUAGE  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS       195 

Cleveland  High  School  boys.  The  school  was  opened  in  January,  1886.  In 
1887  a  law  was  passed  by  the  Ohio  State  Legislature  providing  a  tax  levy  for 
the  support  of  Manual  Training  in  Cleveland.  This  money  was  turned  over  to 
the  Manual  Training  High  School  Company  by  the  Board  of  Education  in  return 
for  the  free  tuition  of  high  school  pupils.  In  1890  the  Board  of  Education  estab- 
lished the  West  Side  Manual  Training  School  wholly  supported  by  the  Board. 
The  work  consisted  of  mechanical  drawing,  carpentry,  wood  turning,  pattern 
making,  forging  and  machine  shop  practice,  the  course  usually  given  in  manual 
training  of  that  period.* 

Mr.  Milo  Stewart,  principal  of  the  Manual  Training  High 
School,  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  says  in  a  personal  letter: 

The  subject  was  offered  first  in  1895.  The  program  of  work  from  1895  to 
1900  was  as  follows:  Stenography,  bookkeeping,  penmanship,  wood  working, 
mechanical  drawing  and  iron  and  steel  forging. 

"Mechanical  drawing  and  bench  work"  is  the  only  description 
given  of  the  work  in  manual  training  in  the  Omaha,  Nebraska, 
High  School  in  1889.2  c 

Further  development  of  the  work  in  the  Chicago  English  High 
and  Manual  Training  School  is  shown  by  the  course  of  study  for 
1895.'  The  course  includes  mechanical  and  freehand  drawing, 
joinery  and  wood-turning,  cabinet  and  bench  work,  pattern  work, 
foundry  and  blacksmith  work,  machine  shopwork — chipping,  filing, 
and  fitting — and  use  of  lathe  planer  and  milling  machine,  lectures 
on  wood,  iron,  and  machinery,  and  its  work  constituted  a  part  of  the 
regular  work  of  the  course. 

The  work  provided  in  the  course  offered  by  the  Appleton, 
Wisconsin,  High  School*  in  1900  is  grouped  under  two  heads — 
drawing  and  shopwork.  Under  the  former  are  listed  notes  on 
experimental  geometry,  geometrical  solution  of  problems  with 
draughting  instruments,  block  and  freehand  lettering,  shade-lining, 
tracing,  blue  printing  and  mounting  prints,  freehand  drawing, 
dimension  sketches,  notes  on  pattern  making,  molding  and  casting, 
pattern  and  machine  drawing,  elementary  mechanism,  notes  on 
forging,  welding  and  tool  making,  orthographic  projection,  and 
machine  design. 

The  shopwork  is  described  as  follows:  instruction  in  construc- 
tion, care,  and  use  of  bench  tools  and  joinery;  instruction  and 

>  Information  furnished  by  a  letter  to  the  author  by  Mr.  Roberts  who  had  charge  of  the  manual 
training  work  in  Cleveland  for  a  number  of  years. 
'  Report  Board  oj  Education,  1889. 

•  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  1895,  pp.  319-20. 

*  Catalog  oj  Public  Schools,  Appleton,  Wisconsin,  1900,  pp.  54-61. 


196  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

practice  in  putting  bench  tools  in  order,  wood  carving;  lathe  work 
in  wood  (hand  tools);  pattern  making,  molding  and  casting  (in 
brass,  zinc,  and  plaster  of  Paris);  forging  (in  iron  and  steel),  weld- 
ing, case  hardening  and  hardening  and  tempering  steel ;  bench  work 
in  metals,  machine  work  in  metals  and  machine  finishing,  polishing, 
and  grinding. 

In  a  footnote  to  the  work  of  the  first  year  is  found  the  following 
statement : 

The  shop  work  includes  a  finished  article — such  as  a  stand,  table,  grille — 
which  shall  be  as  far  as  possible,  the  product  of  the  pupil's  work.' 

The  work  of  the  two  schools  last  cited  was  much  more  extensive 
than  was  offered  in  most  of  the  schools  even  as  late  as  1910  as  shown 
by  the  printed  courses  of  study.  Usually  little  or  no  work  was 
done  in  iron  and  the  work  in  wood  was  less  extensive  than  either  of 
the  above  courses  indicate.  The  emphasis  in  these  early  years  of 
the  work  was  placed  upon  learning  to  use  hand  tools  and  in  making 
a  "finished  article  such  as  a  stand,  table"  and  the  like. 

>  Catalot,  AppleUm,  Wisconsin,  Public  Schools,  1900. 


PART  III 
RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS 

CHAPTER  XIV 
ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA  AND  RANGE  OF  SUBJECTS 

The  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed  certain  definite 
tendencies  in  secondary  education.  No  radical  readjustments 
had  yet  taken  place  but  tendencies  were  developed  during  the  last 
decade  of  the  century  which  have  resulted  in  a  great  movement 
changing  the  scope  and  character  of  secondary  education  in  marked 
degree.  As  pointed  out,  however,  in  Part  I,  the  old  order  of  things 
held  until  the  close  of  the  century  in  spite  of  the  tendencies  referred 
to  above  during  the  last  decade.  The  first  decade  of  the  present 
century  shows  an  increase  in  these  tendencies,  but  the  readjust- 
ments have  really  taken  place  for  the  most  part  since  1910.  Since 
that  date  radical  changes  have  already  occurred  or  are  well  under 
way. 

One  of  the  very  marked  changes  is  in  the  scope  of  secondary 
education.  The  junior  high  school  adds  two  years  to  the  high- 
school  curriculum  from  below,  making  six  years  instead  of  four. 
The  junior  college  adds  two  years  beyond  the  twelfth  grade.  In 
case  a  high  school  includes  both  of  these,  the  curriculum  includes 
eight  years  of  work.  The  latter  type  of  school  is  not  classified 
definitely  as  a  secondary  institution,  but  a  number  of  schools  are 
so  recognized  and  others  are  in  prospect  of  establishment.  Chicago^ 
now  maintains  a  junior  college  in  connection  with  the  Crane  Techni- 
cal High  School  and  one  has  been  established  in  Grand  Rapids,^ 
Michigan.  The  State  Department  of  South  Dakota  reports  two  in 
that  state  "all  connected  with  high  schools."  Statistics  are  rather 
meager  concerning  this  institution  but  it  is  evident  that  the  move- 
ment has  considerable  momentum  and  may  result  in  a  general 
extension  upward  of  the  scope  of  secondary  education. 

Every  indication  at  the  present  time  is  that  the  movement  to 
establish  junior  high  schools  will  result  in  a  fixed  policy  of  including 
at  least  six  years  in  the  scope  of  high-school  education.     The  move- 

»  Cf.  Course  oj  Study,  1917. 

'  Cf.  School  Survey.    Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  1910,  pp.  267  ff. 

197 


198  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

ment  is  now  widespread  in  the  North  Central  states  as  shown  by 
data  collected  and  tabulated  by  Professor  C.  O.  Davis  for  the  North 
Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.^  His 
report  shows  that  there  were  1,140  schools  accredited  by  the 
association  in  1918  and  this  number  includes  two  hundred  and 
ninety-three  which  maintain  junior  high  schools.  It  is  true  that 
this  type  of  school  is  far  from  being  standardized,  either  from  the 
standpoint  of  organization  or  curriculum.  In  fact,  the  name 
"junior  high  school"  is  applied  to  but  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight 
of  these  schools.  Other  names  being  employed  are:  "department 
school,"  forty-six;  "six-year  high  school,"  twelve;  other  names, 
sixty-seven.  There  is  lack  of  uniformity  also  regarding  the  grades 
included  as  this  same  report  shows:  eighty-nine  include  grades 
seven,  eight,  and  nine;  twenty-two,  grades  six,  seven,  and  eight; 
eight,  grades  eight  and  nine;  one  hundred  and  thirty-three,  grades 
seven  and  eight;  eleven,  only  the  eighth  grade;  and  eleven  desig- 
nated as  including  other  grades.  Eighteen  having  the  six-six 
plan  do  not  make  distinction  between  junior  and  senior  high  school 
organization,  but  it  is  clear  that  all  grades  beyond  the  seventh  are 
included.  If  the  recommendation  of  the  Commission  on  Units 
and  Curricula  of  the  North  Central  Association  made  to  the  Asso- 
ciation in  1917  and  adopted  the  present  year  is  accepted  as  a 
standard,  uniformity  will  prevail  in  the  number  of  years  included. 
The  recommendation  reads  as  follows : 

The  Junior  High  School  shall  normally  include  the  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth  years  of  public  school  work.' 

Lack  of  standardization  is  also  shown  by  an  examination  of  the 
curricula  of  these  schools.  In  some  cases  elementary  subjects  pre- 
dominate to  such  an  extent  that  there  is  little  difference  between 
the  work  of  the  first  two  years  and  the  traditional  seventh-  and 
eighth-grade  work.  In  others  the  work  is  predominately  of 
secondary  grade  so  far  as  the  subjects  are  concerned.  This  dif- 
ference is  also  shown  by  different  schools  from  the  standpoint  of 
curricula  organization.  Some  schools  offer  a  single  curriculum 
with  few  or  no  electives  during  the  first  two  years  while  others 
recognize  the  needs  of  pupil  groups  and  provide  parallel  curricula. 
The  recommendation  of  the  North  Central  Association  also  touches 
upon  this  point.' 

» Leaflet  published  1918. 

*  Proceedings  of  North  Central  Association  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  1917,  p.  56. 

» Ibid.,  pp.  56-57. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


199 


The  following  are  typical  junior  high  school  curricula: 
DULUTH  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


AcADEUic  Courses 


Prevocational  Courses 


SEVENTH  GRADE 


Required  Subjects 


Periods 
per  Week 


Required  Subjects 


Periods 
per  Week 


English 

Arithmetic 

History  &  Geography 

Physical  Training 

Music  and  Penmanship  .... 

Drawing 

Shopwork  or  Home  Training 


English 

Arithmetic 

History  &  Geography . . 

Physical  Training 

Music  and  Penmanship, 
Drawing 


Choose  One 


Periods 


Boys 


Periods 

Weeks 

10 

9 

10 

9 

10 

9 

5 

9 

Girls 


Periods 


Weeks 


English 
Latin . . 
French , 


Wood  work 

Metal  work 

Printing 

Physiology  &Hy 
giene 


Housekeeping  .  . 

Garment  Mak- 
ing  

Physiology  and 
Home  Nurs- 
ing   

Textiles 


EIGHTH  GRADE 


Required  Subjects 


Periods  per  Week 


Required  Subjects 


Periods  per  Week 


English 

Mathematics 

American  History  and  Civics 

Physical  Training 

Music  and  Penmanship 

Drawing 

Shopwork  or  Home  Training . 

Additional 

French 

Latin,  or 

English 


English 

Applied  Mathematics 

American  History  and  Civics 
Music  and  Penmanship .... 

Drawing 

Physical  Training 


Through 
the  year 


30 


Boys 


Periods 

Weeks 

5 

18 

5 

18 

10 

18 

Girls 


Periods 


Weeks 


B  8th  Typewriting 

or  Science 

A  8th  Electricity.. 


Household  management  or 
Garment-making 

A  8th  Typewriting  or 

Science 


200  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


NINTH  GRADE 


Required  Subjects 


Periods 

per 

Week 


Required  Subjects 


Periods 

per 

Week 


English 

Algebra 

Physical  Training, 
Drawing  or  Music 
European  Hist .  .  . 


Prep.  English  or  Business  English 
Econ.  Hist,  and  Occupations .... 

Physical  Training 

Drawing  or  Music 


19 


Boys 


B  9th  Mech.  Dr.  Advanced 
A  9th  Advanced  Wood  work  and 
Concrete  or  Machine  Shop . . . 


Periods 

Weeks 

10 
10 

18 
-    18 

Girls 


Large  Quantity  Cookery  and . . . 

B  9th  Art  Needle  Work 

A  9th  Elementary  Dressmaking . 


Periods 


Weeks 


Choose  One 


Periods 


Choose  One 


Periods 


Latin  or  French . 
European  Hist . . 

Stenography 

Typewriting .... 

Bookkeeping 

Science 


5 
5 
5 
5  or  10 
10 
7 


Through 
the  year 


Latin  or  French . . . 

Algebra 

European  Hist .... 
Commercial  Arith . 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

Bookkeeping 

Science 


5  ^ 

S 
5 
5 
5 

Through 
the  year 

5  or  10 

10 

7 

On  the  advice  of  the  Principal  students  may  specialize  on  some  Industrial  subject. 
The  seventh  grade  preyocational  students  will  take  two  shop  subjects  each  semester  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  offered.   They  are  required  of  all  prevocational  students. 
Notes  for  the  Ninth  Grade. — 

1.  Those  who  expect  to  take  only  two  years  of  the  Commercial  Course  in  the  Senior  High  School 
should  choose  Commercial  Arithmetic  and  either  Stenography  and  Typewriting  or  History  and 
Bookkeeping. 

2.  Those  who  have  taken  the  Prevocational  Course  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades  and  who 
expect  to  take  the  General  Academic  Course  in  the  Senior  High  School  should  choose  either  Science  or 
Language. 

3.  For  those  who  do  not  expect  to  continue  longer  than  the  Ninth  Grade  in  school,  a  special  arrange- 
ment may  be  made  by  which  they  will  be  required  to  take  English,  Physical  Training,  and  Drawing 
or  Music,  and  in  addition  they  may  choose,  with  the  approval  of  the  Principal  three  subjects  or  group 
of  subjects. 

4.  Girls  who  intend  to  pursue  the  Home  Training  Course  in  the  High  School  should  elect  Science 
in  the  Ninth  Grade. 

GARFIELD  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL— RICHMOND,  INDIANA 
Seventh-Grade  Work 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS 
TWENTY-FIVE  PERIODS  PEE  WEEK 

Periods 
per  Week 

English 5 

Arithmetic 5 

History 5 


ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 
FIVE  PERIODS  PER  WEEK 

Periods 
per  Week 

Latin 5 

German 5 

English  Composition 5 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


201 


Physical  Education 3 

Industrial  or 

Household  Arts 3 

Music 2 

Drawing 2 


Industrial  or 

Household  Arts 5 

Agriculture 5 

Commercial  Work 5 

Orchestra 2  (extra) 


Eighth-Grade  Work 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS 
TWENTY  PERIODS  PER  WEEK 

Periods 
per  Week 

English 5 

Arithmetic 5 

Geography  (8B), 

Civics  (8A) 5 

Physical  Education 3 

Chorus  or  Drawing 2 


ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 
TEN  PERIODS  PER  WEEK 

Periods 
per  Week 

Latin 5 

German 5 

English  Composition 5 

Industrial  or 

Household  Arts 5  or  10 

Agriculture 5  or  10 

Commercial  Work 5  or  10 

Drawing  and  Design 5 

Music 5 

Orchestra 2  (extra) 


Ninth-Grade  Work 


REQUIRED  SUBJECTS 
FIFTEEN  PERIODS  PER  WEEK 

Periods 
per  Week 

English 5 

General  Science 5 

Physical  Education 3 

Chorus  or  Drawing 2 


ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 
FIFTEEN  PERIODS  PER  WEEK 

Periods 
per  Week 

Latin 5 

German 5 

Industrial  or 

Household  Arts 5  or  10 

Agriculture 5  or  10 

Drawing  and  Design 5  or  10 

Music 5 

Mathematics 

Algebra,    Commercial   or 
Industrial  Arithmetic.  . .     5 

Civics 5 

History 5 

Orchestra 2  (extra) 


AURORA  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
Tentative  Course,  Junior  High  School 

FIRST  semester 


Required 
English 5 

Literature 

Composition 

Spelling 1 

Civics 23^ 


Optional 

English  Grammar 5 

Latin 5 

German 5 

Algebra 5 

Commercial  Arithmetic 5 


202  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

General  Science ;     2  J^      Cooking 1 

Sewing 1 

Manual  Training 2 

Music 1 

Drawing .  , 1 

Penmanship 2 

SECOND  SEMESTER 
Required  Optional 

English 5  English  Grammar 5 

Literature  Latin 5 

Composition  German 5 

Spelling 1  Algebra 5 

Civics 2  ^      Commercial  Arithmetic  and 

General  Science 23^  Bookkeeping 5 

Cooking 1 

Sewing 1 

Manual  Training 2 

Music 1 

Drawing 1 

Penmanship 2 

Forty-six  semester  units  required  to  complete  the  year's  work. 

The  numeral  set  opposite  the  various  subjects  indicates  the  unit  credits 
allowed  for  each,  and  measures  as  nearly  as  possible  the  comparative  time  and 
effort  required  to  satisfy  requirements  in  each. 

These  curricula  clearly  show  the  secondary  character  of  the 
work.  One  provides  parallel  curricula  and  the  other  two  each  a 
single  curriculum  with  electives.  The  first  two  include  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  grades  while  the  last  provides  only  one  year's 
work.  Each  of  the  first  two  schools  maintains  a  senior  high  school 
of  three  years  with  parallel  curricula  corresponding  to  the  junior 
high  school.  In  the  case  of  Aurora,  the  term  "senior  high  school" 
is  not  used.  Six  parallel  curricula  are  offered  following  the  "tenta- 
tive course"  of  one  year.  Four  of  the  six  curricula  are  four  years 
in  length ;  the  other  two,  five  years. 

1.      CURRICULA  ORGANIZATION 

No  uniformity  exists  in  the  plan  of  organization  of  curricula. 
Certain  tendencies  toward  uniformity  have  been  manifest  for 
about  twenty  years  and  these  are  in  process  of  being  worked  out. 
Two  things  should  be  taken  into  account  in  any  fruitful  discussion 
of  this  topic:  first,  the  plan  of  organization,  and  secondly,  the 
educational  aims  involved.  Taking  up  first  the  question  of  edu- 
cational aims,  it  is  evident  both  from  the  titles  of  curricula  and  also 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


203 


their  content  that  aims  are  becoming  more  definite  and  that  they 
are  being  expressed  more  and  more  in  terms  of  the  needs  of  various 
pupil  groups.  Some  of  the  old  titles  still  remain,  but  on  the  whole, 
titles  have  become  more  meaningful,  and  differentiation  of  cur- 
ricula with  reference  to  the  needs  of  student  groups  is  on  the 
increase.  This  tendency  is  increasing  so  far  as  curricula  titles  are 
concerned,  at  least,  as  shown  by  a  comparison  of  (1)  and  (2)  in 
Table  XXVII. 

P^  Three  plans  of  organization  prevail — a  single  course  with  elec- 
tives,  parallel  courses,  and  the  major-minor  system.  The  latter, 
however,  is  rare,  but  it  is  probable  that  its  use  will  become  more 
general.^ 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  courses  offered,  their 
designations,  and  the  number  of  each. 

TABLE  XXVIII 

1. — SIXTY  SCHOOLS,  1906-11 

Number  Number 

of  Schools  of  Courses 

23 1 

7 2 

4 3 

14 4 

9 5 

3 6 

Designation  Number 

of  Courses  of  Schools 

Academic 1 

Art 1 

Art  and  Manual  Training 1 

Business 2 

Classical 5 

Classical  Preparatory 1 

College  Preparatory 8 

Commercial 29 

Commercial  Industrial 1 

Domestic  Science 1 

Elective 2 

Engineering 1 

Engineering  Preparatory 1 

English 8 

English  and  Latin 1 

English  Scientific 2 

English  Commercial 1 

Five-year  General 1 

'  Report  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  1917,  pp.  58-59. 


204  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Five-year  Latin 1 

Foreign  Language 1 

General 8 

General  Science 1 

German 3 

German-English 2 

Historical 1 

History 3 

Industrial 2 

Language 3 

Language  and  Science 1 

Latin 11 

Latin-English 1 

Latin-German 3 

Latin-Scientific 2 

Literary 1 

Manual  Arts 1 

Manual  Training 4 

Modern  Classical 1 

Modern  Language 1 

Normal  Training 3 

Physical  Science 1 

Regular 2 

Science 5 

Scientific 9 

Scientific  English 1 

Scientific  Preparatory 1 

Teachers' 2 

2. — SIXTY  SCHOOLS,  1915-18 

Number  Number 

of  Schools  of  Courses 

15 1 

5 2 

5 3 

8 4 

7 5 

4 6 

6 7 

3 8 

2 9 

1 10 

1 11 

1 12 

1 13 

1 19 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


205 


Designation 
•f  Courses 

Academic 

Accounting 

Agricultural 

Architectural 

Art 

Business 

Business-English 

Civil  Service 

Classical 

Classical  Preparatory 

College  Preparatory  and  Domestic  Science 

College  Preparatory  for  Engineering, 

Agricultural,  and  Technical  Courses 

College  Preparatory  in  Pharmacy 

Combined  Commercial  and  Manual  Training— Boys. 

Combined  Commercial  and  Manual  Training — Girls . 

Commercial 

Commercial  Course  for  Boys 

Commercial  Course  for  Girls 

Contractor 

Course  in  Millinery 

Course  in  Needle  Arts 

Dentistry 

Domestic  Science 

Domestic  Science  and  Arts 

Engineering 

English 

English-Scientific 

Fine  Arts 

Five-year  Latin 

Five-year  General 

Household  Studies 

General 

General  College  Course 

General  College  Preparatory 

German 

History 

Home 

Home  Arts 

Home  Economics 

Household  Arts 

Household  Economics 

Household  Science 

Industrial 

Industrial  Arts 

Industrial  Course  for  Boys 


Number 
of  Scbook 
2 
2 
5 
1 
2 
4 
1 
1 
5 

20 
1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
31 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

4 
10 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 
16 

1 

1 

4 

4 

1 

1 

5 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 


206  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Industrial  Course  for  Girls 1 

Industrial  and  Engineering 1 

Industrial  and  Vocational 1 

Language 2 

Latin 9 

Latin-French 1 

Latin-German 2 

Latin-Scientific 1 

Local 1 

Law 1 

Manual  Arts 4 

Manual  Training 11 

Mathematics 1 

Mechanic  Arts 1 

Medicine 1 

Modern  Classical 1 

Modern  Language 3 

Normal  College  Preparatory 1 

Normal  Training 5 

Office  Preparatory 1 

Pharmacist 1 

Preparatory 1 

Rural  Economics 1 

Science 10 

Scientific 8 

Scientific  College  Preparatory , .  2 

Special  Preparatory 1 

Stenography 3 

Teachers' 10 

Telegraphy 1 

Technical 1 

Vocational 1 

•The  above  titles  indicate  four-year  courses  with  the  exceptions  noted. 

The  following  are  titles  of  two-year  courses : 

Designation  Number 

of  Courses  of  Schools 

Accounting 

Agriculture 

Bookkeeping 

Domestic  Science  and  Arts 

Electricity 

Industrial 

Machine  Shop 

Printing 

Stenography 

Shorthand 

Commercial  (one  year) 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA  207 

Turning  to  the  titles  listed  on  pages  205-06,  such  as  the  follow- 
ing are  significant  showing  the  specific  character  of  educational  op- 
portunity provided:  Agriculture,  Commercial  Courses  for  Boys, 
Commercial  Courses  for  Girls,  Courses  in  Millinery,  Course  in 
Needle  Arts,  Normal  Training,  Teachers',  Bookkeeping,  Account- 
ing, Electricity,  Printing,  Machine  Shop,  and  Stenography.  The 
preparatory  curricula  have  also  felt  the  influence  of  professional 
and  industrial  influences.  Such  titles  as  the  following  show  this: 
College  Preparatory  for  Engineering,  College  Preparatory  in 
Pharmacy,  Pharmacist,  Law,  and  Dentistry.  How  recent  these 
specific  terms  are  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  titles  in  (1)  and  (2) 
of  Table  XXVIII,  and  the  contrast  between  present  practice  and 
that  of  the  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  shown  by 
comparing  the  titles  in  Table  XXVIII  with  those  in  (8)  Table  I. 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  specific  titles  do  not  always  mean  a 
high  degree  of  specialization,  but  many  of  these  industrial  and 
commercial  curricula  do  provide  a  rather  highly  specialized  type  of 
education. 

Survival  of  the  earlier  practice  of  using  titles  derived  from  the 
various  fields  and  subjects  is  shown  by  such  terms  as  Latin,  English, 
History,  Latin-Scientific,  etc.  Also,  indefinite  titles  such  as 
General,  Elective,  Academic,  and  the  like,  still  prevail.  A  com- 
parison, however,  of  Tables  I  and  XXVIII  shows  the  recent  decline 
of  this  practice,  and  a  comparison  of  (8)  in  Table  I  with  that  of  (2) 
in  Table  XXVIII  indicates  the  change  which  has  taken  place  in 
this  particular  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  plan  of  organization — one  curriculum  with  electives  or 
several  parallel  curricula — may  or  may  not  be  significant,  depend- 
ing upon  (1)  the  range  of  subjects  offered,  and  (2)  the  plan  of 
administering  the  elective  system.  For  example,  one  school  may 
provide  a  single  curriculum  with  electives  so  administered  that  the 
same  educational  opportunity  is  provided  as  is  furnished  by  another 
school  which  offers  two  or  more  parallel  curricula.  In  evaluating 
these  plans  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  know  something  of  the 
details  of  administering  them.  Some  printed  courses  of  study 
furnish  this  information  and  others  do  not.  From  the  evidence 
available,  however,  it  is  evident  that  an  attempt  is  being  made  by 
the  schools  which  publish  a  single  curriculum  to  provide  through 
a  system  of  electives  for  differentiation  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
various  pupil  groups.     As  has  been  pointed  out,  this  attempt  to 


208  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

provide  special  types  of  education  to  meet  the  various  commercial 
and  industrial  demands  is  clearly  revealed  both  by  curricula  organi- 
zation and  the  range  of  subjects  offered.  The  following  are  typical 
high-school  curricula  for  the  periods  1906-11  and  1915-18. 

CHEBOYGAN,  MICHIGAN,  1909-10 

FIRST  YEAR — NINTH  GRADE 


First  Semester 

Second  Semester 

Required 

Required 

English 

English 

Algebra 

Algebra 

G«neral  Electives 

General  Electives 

Latin 

Latin 

Zoology 

Botany 

Ancient  History 

Ancient  History 

Manual  Training 

Manual  Training 

Domestic  Science 

Domestic  Science 

Cocnmeicial  Electivet 

Commercial  Elective* 

Penmanship  and  Spelling 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Penmanship  and  Spelling 

SECOND  YEAR- 

-TENTH  GRADE 

Required 

Required 

English 

English 

Algebra 

Plane  Geometry 

General  Electives 

General  Electives 

Latin  (Caesar) 

Latin  (Caesar) 

Medieval  and  Modern  History 

Medieval  and  Modern  History 

Physiography 

Physiography 

Manual  Training 

Manual  Training 

Domestic  Science 

Domestic  Science 

Commercial  Electives 

Commercial  Electives 

Bookkeeping 

Bookkeeping 

THIRD  YEAR — ELEVENTH  GRADE 

Required 

Required 

English 

English 

Plane  Geometry 

Solid  Geometry* 

Physics 

Physics 

General  Electives 

General  Electives 

Latin  (Cicero)                            » 

Latin  (Cicero) 

German 

German 

Commercial  Electives 

Commercial  Electives 

Commercial  Geography 

Stenography  and  Typewriting 

FOURTH  YEAR — TWELFTH  GRADE 
Required  Required 

American  History  and  Civics  American  History 

Civics 
English  English 

'Not  required  of  students  who  take  the  full  commercial  course. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


209 


General  Electives 
Latin  (Virgil) 
German 
Chemistry 
English  Grammar  Review 

Commercial  Electives 
Commercial  Law 
Stenography 
Typewriting 


General  Electives 
Latin  (Virgil) 
German 
Chemistry 
Algebra  Review 
Advanced  Physiology 
Commercial  Electives 
Bookkeeping 
Stenography 
Typewriting 


CHEBOYGAN,  MICHIGAN,  1916 

LATIN  COURSE 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

English 

English 

English 

Latin 

Algebra 

Algebra  and 

Geometry 

German 

Latin 

Geometry 

Latin 

Physics 

Ancient  History 

Latin 

Modern  History 

German 

American    History 

LATIN-GERMAN  COURSE 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Algebra 

Algebra  and 

Geometry 

German 

Latin 

Geometry 

Chemistry 

Physics 

Ancient  History 

Latin 

Modern  History 

German 

American  History 

ENGLISH  COURSE 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Algebra 

Algebra  and 

Geometry 

Physics 

Biology,  Zoology, 

Geometry 

Chemistry 

German  or  Latin 

and  Botany 

Physiography 

German  or  Latin 

American  History 

Arithmetic  and 

Modern  History 

Commercial  Cor- 

respondence 

Correspondence 

COMMERCIAL  COURSE 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Algebra 

Algebra  and 

Geometry  or 

Physics 

Biology,  Zoology, 

Geometry 

Chemistry 

Stenography  and 

and  Botany 

Physiography 

Stenography  and 

Typewriting 

Arithmetic  and 

Bookkeeping 

Typewriting 

American  History 

Commercial  Cor- 

Commercial Geog- 

respondence 

raphy  and  Law 

Correspondence 

210 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


DELAVAN,  WISCONSIN,  1910-11 
English  Course 


FIRST  YEAR 

First  Semester 

Second  Semester 

Algebra 

Algebra 

English 

English 

Physical  Geography 

Physical  Geography,  Botany 

Physiology 

SECOND  YEAR 

Geography 

Ancient  History 

Ancient  History 

English 

English 

Botany 

Bookkeeping 

Arithmetic 

THIRD  YEAR 

Civics 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Medieval  History 

Modern  History 

English 

American  Literature 

Political  Economy 

FOURTH  YEAR 

English  Grammar 

Physics 

Physics 

American  History 

American  History 

English  Literature 

English  Literature 

Theory  and  Art 

Algebra  or  Reviews 

Modern  Classical  Course 

FIRST  YEAR 

Algebra 

Algebra 

English 

English 

Physical  Geography 

Physical  Geography,  Botany 

Latin 

SECOND  YEAR 

Latin 

Ancient  History 

Ancient  History 

English 

English 

Botany 

Latin 

Latin 

THIRD  YEAR 

Bookkeeping  or  Civics 

Medieval  History 

Modern  History 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Latin 

Latin 

German 

FOURTH  YEAR 

German 

Physics 

Physics 

American  History 

American  History 

Latin 

Latin 

German 

German 

German  Course 

FIRST  YEAR 

Algebra 

Algebra 

English 

English 

ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


211 


Physical  Geography 

Physical  Geography 

Physiology 

SECOND  YEAR 

Botany 
Geography 

Ancient  History 

Ancient  History 

English 

English 

Botany 

Bookkeeping 

Arithmetic 

THIRD  YEAR 

Civics 

Medieval  History 

Modern  History 

Geometry 

Geometry 

German 

German 

Political  Economy 

FOURTH  YEAR 

English  Grammar 

Physics 

Physics 

American  History 

American  History 

German 

German 

English  Literature 

English  Literature 

YANKTON 

,  SOUTH  DAKOTA,  1911 

Latin  Course 

FIRST  YEAR 

Scientific  Course 

Required 

Required 

English 

English 

Algebra 

Algebra 

Latin 

Ancient  History 

Penmanship 

Penmanship 

Elective 

Elective 

Ancient  History 

Physical  Geography 

Music 

Commercial  Geography 

Drawing 

SECOND  YEAR 

Music 
Drawing 

Reqwred 

Required 

English 

English 

Latin 

German 

Geometry 

Geometry 

Elective 

Elective 

Modern  History 

Modern  History 

German  I 

Botany 

Music 

Agriculture 

Drawing 

THIRD  YEAR 

Music 
Drawing 

Required 

Required 

English 

English 

Solid  Geometry,  Algebra 

Solid  Geometry,  Algebra 

Latin 

German 
Chemistry 

212 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Elective 

Elective 

English  History 

Music 

French  History 

Drawing 

German  II 

Music 

Drawing 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Required 

Required 

English 

English 

Physics 

Physics 

Latin 

Elective 

Elective 

German  III 

German  III 

American  History,  Arithmetic 

American  History,  Arithmetic 

Economy,  Commercial  Law 

Economy,  Commercial  Law 

Physiology,  Biology 

YANKTON,  SOUTH  DAKOTA,  1917 
Normal  Course 


FIRST  YEAR 


Required 
English 
Algebra 
Latin 

Penmanship 
Physical  Culture 
Music 


SECOND  YEAR 


English 

Latin 

Algebra  and  Plane  Geometry 

Biology  and  Physiology 

Physical  Training 

THIRD  YEAR 

English 

Plane  Geometry  and  Solid  Geometry 

Physical  Culture 

American  History  and  Civics 

German  or  Latin 


FOURTH  YEAR 


English 

Psychology  and  Pedagogy 

Arithmetic 


Elective 
German  or  Latin 
Domestic  Science  or 

Manual  Training 
Art 
Physical  Geography  and 

General  Science 

German  or  Latin 
Modern  History 
Domestic  Science  or 
Manual  Training 
Music 
Art 

Chemistry 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Music 

Art 

Agriculture 

German  or  Latin 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Music 

Art 

Agriculture 

Physics 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


213 


Scientific  Course 

first  year 

Required 

Elective 

English 

Ancient  History 

Algebra 

Latin 

Physical  Culture 

second  year 

Music 

Art 

General  Science 

Manual  Training  or  Domestic 

Science 
Physical  Geography  and 

General  Science 

English 

Modern  History 

Algebra  and  Plane  Geometry 

Latin 

Physical  Culture 

third  year 

Music 

Art 

Manual  Training  or  Domestic 

Science 
Biology  and  Physiology 

English 

Latin 

German 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Chemistry 

Music 

Physical  Culture 

fourth  year 

Art 

American    History   and    Civics 

Plane   Geometry   and    Algebra 

English 

Latin 

Physics 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

German 

Political  Economy  and 
Arithmetic 

Physical  Culture 

Music 
Art 

Industrial  and^Engineering  Course 

first  year 

Required 

Elective 

English 

Latin 

Mechanical  Drawing  and 

Ancient  History 

Bench  Work 

Physical  Geography  and 

Algebra 

General  Science 

Physical  Culture 

Music 
Art 

second  year 

English  Latin 

Algebra  and  Plane  Geometry  Modern  History 

Mechanical  Drawing  Music 

Bench  Work  Art 

Physical  Culture  Physiology 

Biology 


214 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


THIRD  YEAR 

English 

Plane  Geometry  and  Solid  Geometry 
German 

Architectural  and  Mechanical  Draw- 
ing and  Forge  and  Machine  Work 
Physical  Culture 

FOURTH  YEAR 

English 
Physics 
Architectural  and  Mechanical  Drawing, 

Forge  and  Machine  Work 
German 
Physical  Culture 


Latin 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Chemistry 

Music 

Art 

German 

Spanish 

Latin 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Political  Economy  and 

Arithmetic 
Music 
Art 

German 
Spanish 


Home  Economics  Course 


FIRST  YEAR 
Required 
English 

Home  Economics 
Algebra 
Latin 
Physical  Culture 

second  YEAR 

English 

Home  Economics 

Latin 

Physical  Culture 

Biology  and  Physiology 

THIRD  YEAR 

English 

Home  Economics 

Physical  Culture 

American  History  and  Civics 

Chemistry 


FOURTH  YEAR 


English 

Home  Economics 
Physical  Culture 
Physics 


Elective 
Ancient  History 
Physical  Geography  and 

General  Science 
Music 
Art 

Modern  History 

Algebra   and    Plane   Geometry 

Music 

Art 


Latin 

German 

Chemistry 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Music 

Art 

German  or  Latin 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Political  Economy  and 

Arithmetic 
Music 
Art 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


215 


Classical  Course 


FIRST  YEAR 

Required 

Elective 

English 

Ancient  History 

Algebra 

Music 

Latin 

Art 

Physical  Culture 

Manual  Training  or 

Domestic  Science 

Physical   and   General   Science 

SECOND  YEAR 

English 

Modern  History 

Latin 

Music 

Algebra  and  Plane  Geometry 

Art 

Physical  Culture 

Biology  and  Physiology 

Manual  Training  or  Domestic 

Science 

THIRD  YEAR 

English 

German 

Plane  Geometry  and  Solid  Geometry 

Music 

Latin 

Art 

American  History  and  Civics 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Physical  Culture 

Chemistry 

FOURTH  YEAR 

English 

German 

Physics 

Public  Speaking  and  Debating 

Latin 

Music 

Physical  Culture 

Art 

Political  Economy  and 

Arithmetic 

Commercial  Course 

FIRST  YEAR 

SECOND  YEAR 

Required 

Required 

Algebra 

English 

Commercial  Geography  and 

Algebra   and    Plane   Geometry 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Typewriting 

Typewriting 

Bookkeeping 

Physical  Training 

Penmanship 

Penmanship 

Biology  and  Physiology 

Latin 

Physical  Training 

third  year 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Required 

Required 

English 

Shorthand 

Bookkeeping  and  Shorthand 

Political  Economy  and 

Principles 

Commercial  Law 

American  History  and  Civics 

Typewriting 

Physical  Training 

Physical  Training 

Spanish 

Spanish 

216 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Agricultural  Course 


FIRST  YEAR 
Required 
English 
Algebra 

Manual  Training  or 
Domestic  Science 
Latin 

Physical  Training 

Elective 
Ancient  History 
Physiology  and  General  Science 

THIRD  YEAR 
Required 
English 
Agriculture 
Chemistry 

Physical  Training 

Elective 
American  History  and  Civics 
Public  Speaking  and  Debating 
Manual  Training  or 
Domestic  Science 


SECOND  YEAR 
Required 
English 

Manual  Training  or 
Domestic  Science 
Latin 
Physical  Training 

Elective 

Biology 

Algebra  and  Plane  Geometry 

FOURTH  YEAR 
Required 
English 
Agriculture 
Physical  Training 

Elective 

Political  Economy  and 

Commercial  Law 
Public  Speaking  and  Debating 
Manual  Training  or 

Domestic  Science 


Note. — Students  wishing  to  take  electives  other  than  those  given  may  possibly  do  so  upon  consulta- 
tion with  principal.  Such  selections,  however,  should  be  confined  to  subjects  corresponding  to  the  respec- 
tive classification  of  the  student. 


It  will  be  seen  that  Cheboygan  offered  a  single  course  in  1909 
with  two  groups  of  electives  designated  "general"  and  "commer- 
cial." In  1916  four  parallel  courses  were  offered.  Delavan 
offered  three  courses  in  1910  and  in  1916  a  single  course  with  elec- 
tives. Yankton  offered  two  courses  in  1911  each  with  electives. 
In  1918  seven  courses  were  provided  with  no  electives.  As  has 
been  pointed  out,  the  plan  of  organization  may  or  may  not  be 
significant,  depending  upon  how  the  choice  of  electives  is  adminis- 
tered. The  tendency,  however,  is  clearly  toward  parallel  curricula 
organized  on  the  basis  of  meeting  the  needs  of  the  various  pupil 
groups.  Those  who  enter  higher  institutions  are  provided  for  in 
this  particular  as  well  as  those  who  enter  immediately  upon  the 
active  duties  of  life. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  schools  offering  the 
various  fields  and  subjects,  1906-11. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA 


217 


Mathematics,  40 
Arithmetic,  18 
Algebra,  40 
Plane  Geometry,  40 
Solid  Geometry,  36 
Trigonometry,  20 
College  Algebra,  3 

English,  40* 
Science,  40 
Astronomy,  5 
Biology,  7 
Botany,  34 
Zoology,  22 
Physics,  40 
Chemistry,  37 
Physical  Geography,  33 
Physiology,  26 
Geology,  4 
General  Science,  1 

Social  Studies,  40 
Ancient  History,  37 
Medieval  and  Modern  History,  34 
English  History,  24 
American  History,  37 
Civics,  33 
Economics,  18 
General  History,  1 


TABLE  XXIX 

FORTY  SCHOOLS,  1906-11 

Foreign  Language,  40 


Latin,  40 
French,  15 
German,  38 
Greek,  10 
Spanish,  3 

Commercial  Subjects,  35 
Commercial  Arithmetic,  22 
Commercial  English,  9 
Commercial  Geography,  23 
Commercial  Law,  22 
Commercial   and    Industrial  History,  3 
Typewriting,  25 
Stenography,  27 
Bookkeeping,  31 

Practical  and  Fine  Arts,  28 
Agriculture,  4 
Domestic  Science,  16 
Domestic  Art,  5 
Domestic  Economy,  1 
Mechanical  Drawing,  1 
Manual  Training,  24 
Art,  1 

Education,  10 
Pedagogy,  8 
Psychology,  5 
Ethics,  1 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  schools  offering  the 
various  fields  and  subjects,  1915-18. 

TABLE  XXX 

FORTY  SCHOOLS,  1915-18 
Chemistry,  37 
Geology,  3 
General  Science,  19 
Zoology,  16 
Physics,  40 

Physical  Geography,  21 
Physiology,  21 

Social  Studies,  40 
Ancient  History,  38 
Medieval  and  Modern  History,  34 
English  History,  21 
American  History,  37 


Mathematics,  40 
Arithmetic,  13 
Algebra,  40 
Plane  Geometry,  40 
Solid  Geometry,  39 
Trigonometry,  20 
College  Algebra,  3 

English,  40* 
Science,  40 

Astronomy,  1 
Biology,  18 
Botany,  27 

•Subjects  not  specified. 


218 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


Civics,  34 
Economics,  25 
State  History,  2 
Citizenship,  1 
Contemporary  Life,  1 

Foreign  Language,  40 
Latin,  40 
French,  14 
German,  37 
Greek,  6 
Spanish,  15 
Swedish,  1 

Commercial  Subjects,  40 
Commercial  Arithmetic,  26 
Commercial  English,  16 
Commercial  Geography,  27 
Commercial  Law,  31 
Commercial  and  Industrial  History,  10 
Typewriting,  38 
Stenography,  38 
Bookkeeping,  37 
Accounting,  5 
Business  Methods,  9 
Banking,  3 
Salesmanship,  5 
Office  Practice,  4 
Advertising,  3 

Practical  and  Fine  Arts,  39 
Agriculture,  22 


Domestic  Science,  30 

Domestic  Art,  7 

Domestic  Economy,  6 

Manual  Training,  31 

Mechanical  Drawing,  5 

Pattern  Making,  4 

Machine  Shop,  6 

Metal  Work,  2 

Pottery,  1    ^ 

Household  Chemistry,  5 

Camp  Cooking,  1 

Forging,  6 

Machine  Fitting,  1 

Printing,  3 

First  Aid,  1 

Electricity  and  Applied  Mechanics,  1 

Building  Construction,  1 

Carpentry,  1 

Home  Management,  3 

Design,  1 

Telegraphy,  1 

Home-Nursing,  1 

Millinery,  2 

Art  and  Needlework,  2 

Laundry  and  Sanitation,  1 

Household  Physics,  1 

Education,  13 
Pedagogy, 13 
Psychology,  7 


Biblical  Literature,  1 
2.      RANGE  OF  SUBJECTS 

The  range  of  subjects  in  the  traditional  fields  remains  practi- 
cally unchanged  since  1900.  Increase  of  uniformity  of  termin- 
ology, particularly  in  English,  science,  and  the  social  studies,  gives 
an  appearance  of  less  wide  range,  but  such  is  not  the  case  in  fact, 
except  in  a  limited  way.  In  the  case  of  English,  for  example,  less 
attention  no  doubt  is  being  given  to  the  formal  aspects  of  grammar 
and  rhetoric  and  more  emphasis  is  being  placed  upon  composition 
and  the  content  of  literature.  Astronomy  has  practically  dis- 
appeared and  geology  is  negligible.  The  loss  through  the  decline 
of  these  subjects  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  extension  of 
subject-matter  in  other  science  subjects.  The  standardization  of 
terminology  in  the  case  of  the  social  studies  has  greatly  reduced 
the  number  of  the  names  of  subjects  without,  however,  involving 
any  actual  loss. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA  219 

The  commercial  subjects  and  the  fine  and  practical  arts,  on 
the  other  hand,  show  great  increase  in  range  of  subjects.  The 
most  of  this  extension  has  taken  place  since  1910,  as  shown  by  a 
study  of  Tables  IX,  XXIX,  and  XXX.  The  latter  table,  par- 
ticularly, shows  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  use  of  terms,  but  making 
full  allowance  for  this,  it  is  still  evident  that  considerable  extension 
has  taken  place.  Such  terms,  for  example,  as  salesmanship, 
accounting,  advertising,  and  the  like  show  that  the  work  in  com- 
mercial subjects  is  being  extended  beyond  merely  clerical  lines.^ 

The  fields  in  which  greatest  extension  has  taken  place  are  those 
of  the  commercial  and  the  fine  and  practical  arts.^  We  find  here 
also  evident  lack  of  standardization  of  terms,  but  again  making  full 
allowance  for  this,  it  is  very  clear  that  the  work  in  this  field  is  being 
greatly  extended.  Such  terms  as  millinery,  printing,  nursing, 
design,  telegraphy,  and  the  like  conclusively  show  this.  There  is 
no  doubt  much  similarity  in  lines  of  work  designated  by  the  use  of 
different  names.  For  example,  domestic  science,  domestic  art,  and 
domestic  economy  do  not  always  signify  different  lines  of  work. 
The  first  two  are  frequently  used  synonymously  and  all  three  are 
sometimes  so  used.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  three  general  lines 
of  work  are  now  recognized.  The  first  has  to  do  with  food,  its 
values,  its  preparation,  and  the  serving  of  it.  The  second  empha- 
sizes the  artistic  side  of  home  life  including  decoration,  selection 
and  arrangement  of  furniture,  and  the  like.  In  this  line  is  also 
included  needlework  of  all  sorts,  millinery,  and  a  study  of  textiles. 
The  third  group  of  subjects  emphasizes  management  in  the  home. 
This  subject  is  not  clearly  defined  but  the  point  of  view  is  clearly 
that  of  training  in  directing  all  the  forces  in  the  home  and  conserving 
all  its  interests.  As  has  been  said,  there  is  much  overlapping  and 
terms  are  used  very  loosely.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the 
process  of  differentiation  and  classification  is  going  on  rapidly  and 
unit  courses  and  curricula  are  being  definitely  worked  out  which 
will  result  in  a  fairly  definite  organization  of  these  lines  of  work. 

The  general  terms  "manual  training"  and  "mechanical  drawing" 
include  a  relatively  wide  range  of  subjects.  These  two  lines  of 
work  have  been  recognized  from  the  first  and  the  distinction  is  still 
maintained.  The  former  has  been  much  extended  as  shown  by  the 
use  of  such  terms  as  carpentry,  building  construction,  machine 

1  Cf.  Tables  XXIX  and  XXX. 

« Ibid. 


220 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 


shop,  electricity,  and  applied  mechanics.  The  greatest  extension 
of  this  work  is  found  in  technical  schools  such  as  the  Harrison, 
Lane,  and  Crane  Technical  high  schools  of  Chicago.^  Similar 
schools  are  maintained  by  other  large  cities,  but  since  these  schools 
are  relatively  few  and  are  not  typical,  data  from  their  curricula 
are  not  included  in  the  tables. 

The  following  table  shows  the  constants  and  variables  in  terms 
of  percentages  for  the  various  fields  and  subjects. 


1906-11 

Mathematics 100  100 

English 100  100 

Science 100  100 

Social  Studies 100  100 


TABLE  XXXI 

1915-18 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 45  32}4 

Algebra 100  100 

Plane  Geometry 100  100 

Solid  Geometry 90  97  ^ 

Trigonometry 50  50 

College  Algebra 7  H  TH 

English — 

Composition* 100  100 

Literature 100  100 

Science — 

Astronomy 12^  2J^ 

Biology 17M  45 

Botany 85  67^ 

Zoology 55  40 

Physics 100  100 

Chemistry 92^^  92^ 

Physical  Geography...   82 J^  52 J^ 

.  Physiology 65  52^ 

Geology 10  7}4 

General  Science 2J^  47  H 

Social  Studies — 

Ancient  History 92  K  95 

Medieval  and  Modern 

History 85  85' 


1906-11 

Foreign  Language 100 

Commercial  Subjects ....  90 
Fine  and  Practical  Arts . .  70 
Education 25 


English  History 60 

American  History 923^ 

Civics 82H 

Economics 45 

Foreign  Language — 

Latin 100 

French 32H 

German 95 

Greek 25 

Spanish 7K 

Commercial  Subjects — 
Commercial  Arithmetic  55 
Commercial  English...   22J^ 
Commercial  Geography  573^ 

Commercial  Law 57J^ 

Commercial  and  Indus- 
trial History 7H 

Typewriting 62  J^ 

Stenography 67  J^ 

Bookkeeping 77J^ 

Accounting 

Banking 

Office  Practice 

Salesmanship 

Advertising 


1915-18 

100 

100 

97H 
32^ 

52M 
923^ 
87K 
62M 

100 
35 

923^ 
15 
37H 

65 
40 
673^ 
773^ 

22H 

95 

923^ 

923^ 

17H 

7^ 
10 
12H 

7H 


•Grammar  and  rhetoric  are  no  doubt  taught  more  or  less,  but  the  tendency  to  teach  these  in  connec- 
tion with  composition  and  literature  has  been  steadily  increasing  since  1900.  For  this  reason  they  are 
not  listed  separately. 


>  Cf.  Printed  Course  of  Study  for  Chicago  High  Schools,  1917. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA  221 

Fine  and  Practical  Art5'\  Household    Manage- 

Agriculture 10  55  ment 7J^ 

Domestic  Science 40  75  Machine  Shop 15 

Domestic  Economy 2  J^  15  Forging 15 

Domestic  Art 12*^  17J^  Printing 7H 

Manual  Training 60  77J^  Education — 

Mechanical  Drawing . .     2  J^  12  J^  Pedagogy 20  323^ 

Pattern  Making 0  10  Psychology 123^  17J^ 

Household  Chemistry 123^ 

3.      CONSTANTS  AND  VARIABLES 

It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  Table  XXXI  that  all  the  fields 
are  constants  in  the  period  1915-18  except  that  one  school  offers 
nothing  in  the  fine  and  practical  arts.  In  the  period  1906-11, 
approximately  90  per  cent  offer  commercial  work  and  70  per  cent 
provide  courses  in  the  fine  and  practical  arts.  Comparing  Tables 
IX  and  XXXI  a  considerable  increase  is  shown  in  the  number  of 
schools  offering  commercial  work.  The  same  comparison  shows 
that  the  increase  of  the  work  in  the  fine  and  practical  arts  has 
practically  all  taken  place  since  1900. 

The  only  field  not  a  constant  is  what  is  now  generally  called 
education.  In  certain  of  the  states  this  work  is  emphasized  far 
more  than  in  other  states.^  This  field  is  growing  in  importance  and 
a  decided  increase  is  shown  since  1900. 

The  only  constants  in  the  field  of  mathematics  are  algebra  and 
geometry.  Solid  geometry  is  nearly  so.  Trigonometry  was 
offered  in  50  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  both  periods  and  has  in- 
creased since  1900,  as  shown  by  reference  to  Table  X.  Arithmetic 
has  declined  since  1900  and  is  still  on  the  decline  as  shown  by  com- 
paring the  two  periods  in  Tables  XXXI. 

The  reorganization  of  the  work  in  English  which  has  been  going 
on  for  some  time  has  resulted  in  a  breaking  down  of  the  old  divisions. 
This  has  resulted  in  a  decline  of  formal  grammar  and  rhetoric  and 
an  increase  in  attention  to  composition  and  literature.  It  is 
probably  true  that  all  teach  grammar  and  rhetoric  although  these 
terms  are  frequently  not  included  in  explanations  of  the  work  in 
English. 

Physics  is  the  only  science  subject  offered  by  all  the  schools. 
Chemistry  stands  next  having  to  its  credit  923^2  Percent  of  the  schools 

tFor  subjects  offered  in  only  one  or  two  schools  see  Tables  XXIX  and  XXX. 
>  Cf.  Report  United  States  Commission  of  Education,  1916,  II,  452-55. 


222  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

in  each  period.  A  decided  increase  is  shown  since  1900.  Botany 
stands  next  to  chemistry  and  is  followed  by  physical  geography. 
Both  of  these  subjects  show  a  decided  decline,  comparing  periods 
1906-11  and  1915-18.  Physiology  follows  physical  geography, 
having  to  its  credit  65  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  1906-11  and  declines 
to  52}/^  per  cent  in  the  last  period.  Zoology  loses  15  per  cent  and 
is  offered  in  40  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  1915-18.  Astronomy  and 
geology  are  negligible  in  the  last  period.  Biology  more  than 
doubles  and  general  science  represented  by  only  one  school  on 
1906-11,  is  offered  by  47^/^  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  the  last  period. 
The  decrease  in  the  importance  of  botany,  zoology,  physical  geog- 
raphy, and  physiology  is  no  doubt  fully  accounted  for  by  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  schools  offering  biology  and  general 
science. 

No  subject  in  the  field  of  the  social  studies  is  strictly  a  constant 
although  ancient  history  and  American  history  are  nearly  so,  each 
being  offered  in  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  schools.  Medieval 
and  modern  history  stands  next  with  85  per  cent  of  the  schools  for 
both  periods.  Civics  follows  with  82}/^  per  cent  and  873/^  per  cent 
for  the  two  periods.  All  these  subjects  show  decided  increase  since 
1900,  as  shown  by  reference  to  Table  X.  The  increase  in  the  case 
of  European  history  is,  however,  not  as  much  as  it  appears  to  be 
due  to  the  disappearance  of  the  term  "general  history."  The 
material  formerly  so  designated  is  now  classified  as  ancient  history 
and  medieval  and  modern  history.  Not  much  change,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  has  taken  place  in  the  number  of  schools  offering 
European  history.  English  history  is  offered  in  a  little  more  than 
one-half  of  the  schools  and  shows  some  decline.  Economics 
offered  in  45  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  1906-11  increases  to  623/^ 
per  cent  in  the  last  period. 

Latin  is  the  constant  in  the  field  of  foreign  language  followed 
closely  by  German.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  the 
latter  has  declined  rapidly  in  the  last  few  months  and  present 
indications  are  that  it  will  become  almost  negligible.  Whether  or 
not  this  decline  almost  to  the  point  of  extinction  is  permanent, 
cannot  be  determined  at  present.  French,  offered  in  approxi- 
mately one-third  of  the  schools  in  both  periods,  will  be  introduced 
into  many  schools  next  year.  As  in  the  case  of  German  it  is  too 
early  to  tell  what  the  final  outcome  will  be.  Spanish  was  offered 
in  1}/2  per  cent  of  the  schools  in  1906-11  and  in  373^  per  cent  in 
the  last  period. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA  223 

The  most  significant  fact  revealed  by  Table  XXXI  concerning 
commercial  subjects  and  the  fine  and  practical  arts  is  the  tremen- 
dous increase  since  1900  in  the  number  of  schools  offering  these 
subjects.  The  table  also  shows  the  rapid  increase  since  1910. 
This  is  shown  both  by  increase  in  percentages  and  also  by  the  new 
subjects  added. 

None  of  the  commercial  subjects  are  constants,  although  stenog- 
raphy, typewriting,  and  bookkeeping  are  nearly  so  in  the  last 
period.  Commercial  law,  geography,  and  arithmetic  stand  next 
in  the  order  named  with  77^  per  cent,  67)^  per  cent,  and  65  per 
cent  respectively. 

Table  XXXI  does  not  present  the  true  status  concerning  the 
fine  and  practical  arts,  due  to  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  use  of 
terminology.  For  example,  take  the  terms  "domestic  economy," 
"domestic  science,"  and  "domestic  art."  They  are  not  used  in  the 
same  sense  by  all  the  schools,  A  reference  to  Table  XXXI  shows 
that  97^  per  cent  offer  some  work  in  this  general  field  in  1915-18. 
The  same  is  true  in  the  case  of  the  vocational  subjects  for  boys. 
Approximately  973^  per  cent  of  the  schools  also  offer  work  in  the 
subjects  included  in  the  general  subject  manual  training.  As 
shown  by  Table  XXX  all  but  one  school  offered  something  in  this 
general  field  in  the  last  period. 

Pedagogy  and  psychology  are  not  as  yet  very  important,  but 
an  increase  is  shown  from  1900  to  1910  and  further  increase  since 
the  latter  date. 

4.      REQUIRED  SUBJECTS  AND  ELECTIVES 

English  is  the  only  field  in  which  subjects  are  universally  re- 
quired. All  the  schools  at  present  require  at  least  two  years 
work,  approximately  90  per  cent  require  at  least  three  years,  and 
about  50  per  cent  require  four  years.  This  practice  of  requiring 
English  of  all  students  dates  back  previous  to  1900,  and  the  amount 
required  has  constantly  increased  up  to  the  present  time. 

Approximately  80  per  cent  of  the  schools  require  algebra  and 
about  60  per  cent  require  plane  geometry.  Of  this  number  about 
50  per  cent  require  two  years,  one  year  of  algebra  and  one  year  of 
plane  geometry,  and  the  remainder  require  an  additional  semester 
of  algebra.  The  number  of  schools  requiring  any  mathematics 
beyond  this  is  negligible.  Previous  to  1900  practically  all  high 
schools  required  both  algebra  and  plane  geometry.  The  decline 
in  this  practice  has  taken  place  chiefly  since  1910. 


224  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

About  50  per  cent  of  the  schools  require  some  work  in  science, 
usually  one  or  two  years.  Of  this  number  20  per  cent  do  not  specify 
what  science  is  required,  giving  students  opportunity  to  choose. 
Physics  is  required  in  25  per  cent  of  the  schools  and  physiology  in 
about  10  per  cent.  A  few  schools  require  some  other  science  sub- 
ject, but  the  number  is  negligible.  On  the  whole,  the  practice  of 
requiring  science  is  decreasing,  the  only  exception  being  in  general 
science.  This  subject  has  been  introduced  only  recently  and  the 
increasing  tendency  to  require  the  subject  is  evident. 

Something  in  the  field  of  the  social  studies  is  required  in  60 
per  cent  of  the  schools.  American  history  leads  with  40  per  cent 
and  ancient  history  and  civics  are  each  required  by  15  per  cent  of 
the  schools.  The  practice  of  requiring  American  history  has 
developed  since  1900  and  the  same  is  true  of  civics.  The  require- 
ment in  the  case  of  ancient  history  is  no  doubt  a  survival  of  the 
practice  of  requiring  general  history.  The  number  of  schools 
requiring  American  history  and  civics  is  increasing,  and  this  may 
be  expected  to  continue.  The  growth  of  sentiment  in  favor  of 
requiring  American  history  is  shown  by  a  resolution  adopted  by  the 
North  Central  Association  of  Secondary  Schools  and  Colleges, 
March  22,  1918.     The  resolution  reads  as  follows: 

It  is  urgently  recommended  that  a  course  in  American  history  be  required 
for  graduation  by  all  secondary  schools;  that  the  course  be  so  placed  in  the  cur- 
riculum, in  so  far  as  such  arrangement  is  possible,  that  all  who  enter  the  schools 
may  receive  the  benefit  of  instruction;  that  the  subject  matter  be  selected  with 
special  reference  to  the  inculcation  of  proper  social  and  economic  ideals;  and  that 
methods  of  teaching  be  chosen  and  supervised  with  special  reference  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  aim. 

This  does  not  represent  at  all  what  schools  do  actually  require,  but 
since  the  resolution  was  unanimously  adopted,  it  is  significant  in 
indicating  the  sentiment  of  teachers  and  administrators  in  secon- 
dary schools  and  higher  institutions.  The  number  of  schools 
requiring  subjects  other  than  those  named  above  are  so  few  that 
they  may  be  disregarded. 

Some  foreign  language,  usually  not  specified,  is  required  in 
about  10  per  cent  of  the  schools.  When  the  language  is  specified, 
it  is  invariably  Latin. 

No  school  in  the  list  considered  requires  commercial  subjects. 
It  is  rather  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  10  per  cent  of  the 
schools  require  something  in  the  field  of  fine  and  practical  arts. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA  225 

While  it  is  not  the  practice  to  specify,  it  is  clear  that  requirements 
for  boys  and  girls  are  different. 

The  relative  importance  at  present  of  subjects,  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  number  of  pupils  pursuing  them,  is  not  easily  deter- 
mined in  most  cases,  since  several  determining  factors  enter  into 
the  situation.  First,  the  relative  number  of  schools  requiring  the 
various  subjects  has  to  be  taken  into  account.  This  has  been 
discussed  in  the  preceding  pages,  and  if  it  were  the  only  factor,  one 
could  determine  the  minimum  percentages,  at  least,  of  pupils 
pursuing  the  various  subjects.  For  example,  it  could  be  said  that  at 
least  25  per  cent  study  physics  while  the  minimum  for  those  study- 
ing physiology  is  only  10  per  cent.  The  second  factor  here  enters 
in,  viz.,  the  year  or  years  in  the  course  in  which  the  subject  is 
offered.  This  is  discussed  in  the  section  immediately  following. 
Taking  the  two  subjects  mentioned,  physiology  is  usually  a  first- 
year  subject  while  physics  is  usually  offered  in  the  last  year.  In 
any  given  schools  requiring  both  of  these  subjects,  it  is  clear  that 
many  more  pupils,  perhaps  double  the  number,  would  study  the 
former  as  compared  with  the  number  pursuing  the  latter.  Com- 
puting the  number  on  the  basis  of  10  per  cent  of  the  schools  requiring 
physiology  and  25  per  cent  physics,  it  is  probable  that  the  minimum 
number  is  about  the  same  in  each  case.  Another  question  entering 
into  the  situation  is  whether  a  subject  is  required  of  all  pupils  or 
only  in  certain  specified  curricula.  For  example,  a  school  might 
maintain  five  curricula  and  require  a  specified  subject  in  four  of  the 
five,  while  another  school  having  an  equal  enrolment  and  an  equal 
number  of  curricula  would  require  it-  in  only  one.  If  curricula 
titles  were  more  definitely  descriptive  of  content,  inferences,  at 
least,  could  be  drawn  with  some  degree  of  accuracy.  There  are 
some  titles,  of  course,  which  clearly  indicate  that  one  or  more  sub- 
jects are  pursued  by  all  who  elect  the  curricula.  For  example, 
such  titles  as  agriculture,  domestic  science,  manual  training,  and 
commercial,  indicate  groups  of  subjects,  at  least,  which  are  pursued 
by  large  numbers  of  pupils.  Another  title,  college  preparatory, 
indicates  another  group  of  subjects  which  are  pursued  by  the  large 
number  of  pupils  preparing  for  higher  institutions.  For  example, 
foreign  language,  while  required  by  only  10  per  cent  of  the  schools, 
stands  relatively  high  in  the  number  of  pupils  pursuing  it. 

Taking  into  account  all  the  factors  it  is  possible  to  arrive  at 
certain  conclusions  with  varying  degrees  of  accuracy.     It  is  clear 


226  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

for  example,  that  English  leads  all  other  subjects.  It  is  offered 
four  years,  two  years  is  required  in  all  schools,  three  years  in  90 
per  cent  and  four  years  in  50  per  cent  of  them.  Algebra  probably 
stands  next  because  it  is  a  first-year  subject  and  is  required  in  a 
high  percentage  of  schools.  History  of  some  sort  probably  stands 
relatively  high  since  the  average  time  devoted  to  this  field  is  four 
years  and  something  is  required  in  60  per  cent  of  the  schools.  When 
one  undertakes,  however,  to  determine  the  relative  importance  of 
the  different  units  in  history,  definite  conclusions  are  quite  impos- 
sible. American  history  is  required  in  nearly  one-half  of  the  schools 
and  ancient  history  in  less  than  one-sixth.  But  the  latter  is  usually 
offered  in  the  first  year  and  the  former  in  the  last  year,  and  it  is 
therefore  probable  that  these  subjects  are  about  equal  in  impor- 
tance. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  percentage  of  schools  making  require- 
ments, science  stands  next  to  the  social  studies.  The  maximum 
requirement,  25  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  physics  does  not  mean  that 
this  subject  leads  for  the  reason  already  pointed  out,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  of  the  subjects,  physical 
geography,  physiology,  physics,  and  botany,  is  about  equal.^ 
Foreign  language  is  required  in  only  about  10  per  cent  of  the 
schools,  but  it  is  no  doubt  elected  by  a  large  number  of  pupils. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  Latin.'*  It  is  offered  four  years 
in  practically  all  the  schools  and  is  nearly  always  required  in  college 
preparatory  courses. 

In  summary  it  may  be  said  that  the  order  of  importance  of 
fields  and  subjects  is  as  follows:  English,  with  emphasis  upon 
composition  and  literature;  algebra,  history,  science,  probably 
quite  equally  distributed  as  suggested  above;  foreign  language 
(with  Latin  leading)  and  increasing  emphasis  on  commercial  and 
practical  arts  subjects. 

5.      SIZE  AND  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS 

It  is  evident  that  general  uniformity  in  content  of  curricula 
prevails  in  the  North  Central  states.  As  pointed  out  in  Part  I, 
neither  the  size  of  a  school  nor  its  location  seems  to  have  much 
influence  except  that  schools  in  the  larger  centers  of  population 
offer  a  wider  range  of  subjects.    The  rapid  development  of  com- 

'  This  estimate  is  corroborated  by  the  Report  oj  the  United  States  Commission  of  Education,  1916, 
II,  500-4. 
*lhid. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CURRICULA  227 

mercial  and  industrial  education  is  widespread  and  extends  to  the 
smaller  schools  as  well  as  to  the  larger  ones.  The  latter,  however, 
offer  a  wider  range  of  subjects  and  also  those  more  highly  special- 
ized and  more  strictly  vocational  in  character.  Commercial  and 
industrial  education  is  by  no  means  confined  to  localities  where  one 
would  expect  occupational  interests  and  activities  to  demand  these 
specific  types  of  education.  Agriculture,  for  example,  is  taught  in 
urban  as  well  as  in  rural  communities.  Commercial  subjects  are 
offered  in  the  latter  as  well  as  in  the  former,  although  the  range  is 
not  so  wide  nor  are  the  subjects  usually  so  highly  specialized. 

The  fact  seems  clear  that  specific  community  interests  and  de- 
mands initiated  the  movement  for  these  types  of  education.  Then 
two  influences  have  been  at  work  to  cause  the  spread  of  the  move- 
ment— widespread  interest  in  commerce  and  industry,  and  the 
always  prevailing  tendency  to  imitate  in  matters  social  and  institu- 
tional. The  essential  unity  in  the  thought  and  purpose  of  the  people 
of  these  states  is  clearly  revealed  by  the  fact  of  general  uniformity  in 
the  character  of  the  curricula  of  the  secondary  schools.  It  is  no 
doubt  true  that  less  uniformity  would  in  many  cases  be  desirable. 
Smaller  schools  are  sometimes  overambitious  to  imitate  larger 
schools,  and  attempts  to  imitate  result  in  undertaking  to  do  things 
which  are  not  done  well.  But  the  facts  are  as  stated.  The  Amer- 
ican high  school  early  in  its  history  undertook  to  perform  two 
functions,  that  of  preparing  for  college,  and  that  of  preparing  for 
life,  and  both  these  functions  are  still  attempted  by  all  high  schools 
having  a  minimum  curriculum  of  four  years.  As  the  commercial 
and  industrial  demands  have  increased  and  become  more  specific, 
the  schools  have  responded  by  attempting  to  meet  the  demands 
through  the  introduction  of  commercial  and  industrial  subjects. 
Rural  as  well  as  urban  communities  vary  in  these  demands,  and 
small  schools  as  well  as  large  ones  have  attempted  to  meet  them. 


CHAPTER  XV 
CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER 

Changes  in  subject-matter  since  1900  have  been  marked  in  some 
fields  and  subjects  while  in  others  little  or  no  change  has  taken 
place.  One  cause  of  change,  if  not  indeed  the  chief  cause,  has  been 
the  emphasis  placed  upon  industrial  and  commercial  education. 
The  increased  attention  given  to  these  types  of  education  as  shown 
by  the  multiplication  of  subjects  in  these  fields  and  by  the  increase 
in  time  devoted  to  the  subjects  is  also  shown  by  the  influence  upon 
the  subject-matter  of  some  of  the  traditional  subjects.  This 
influence,  for  example,  is  shown  by  such  terms  as  business  English, 
commercial  arithmetic,  vocational  mathematics,  industrial  history, 
household  chemistry,  shop  and  farm  physics,  agricultural  botany 
and  the  like. 

In  this  respect,  the  changes  since  1900  are  radically  different 
from  those  which  took  place  before  that  date.  For  example,  the 
shift  in  botany  from  the  anatomy  of  plants  to  morphology  was 
clearly  due  to  professional  influence.  On  the  contrary,  the  present 
emphasis  upon  agricultural  and  horticultural  aspects  of  the  sub- 
jects, in  so  far  as  this  emphasis  exists,  is  manifestly  due  to  industrial 
influences.  The  same  thing  is  true  concerning  the  other  sciences. 
The  changes  previous  to  1900  were  apparently  in  no  way  deter- 
mined by  industrial  demands  but  were  due  to  the  shift  of  interest 
and  point  of  view  of  the  teachers  of  sciences.  In  the  field  of  foreign 
language  the  growth  of  interest  in  Spanish  is  no  doubt  due  to 
commercial  influences.  Attempts  are  also  being  made  to  have 
Latin  contribute  to  the  demands  for  a  more  practical  education. 
Whether  these  latter  subjects  are  capable  of  making  any  con- 
siderable contribution  to  vocational  training  is  another  question. 
The  fact  is  that  the  advocates  of  these  subjects  are  attempting  to 
have  them  make  such  contribution.  Further  evidence  of  the 
influence  of  industrial  and  commercial  demands  will  be  noted  later. 

MATHEMATICS 

The  influence  of  commercial  demands  upon  arithmetic  is  clearly 
revealed  by  the  attention  devoted  to  commercial  arithmetic.     A 

228 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  229 

reference  to  Table  J  will  show  the  percentage  of  schools  offering  this 
subject  at  the  present  time,  and  comparison  of  this  table  with 
Table  I  will  show  the  rapid  gain  made  by  this  subject  since  1910. 
The  recent  textbooks  also  show  the  emphasis  placed  upon  the  com- 
mercial phase  of  the  subject.  An  examination  of  these  reveals  that 
the  old  type  of  subject-matter  discussed  in  Part  II  has  been  largely 
supplanted,  so  far  as  high-school  work  is  concerned  by  material 
determined  theoretically  at  least  by  industrial  and  commercial 
demands. 

Algebra  and  geometry  have  also  felt  the  influence  of  these 
demands  as  shown  by  the  claims  of  these  subjects  set  up  in  the 
prefaces  of  the  later  texts.  An  examination  of  the  texts  them- 
selves, however,  fails  to  reveal  any  radical  change  in  the  character 
of  the  subject-matter  of  either  of  these  subjects.  The  so-called 
practical  values  which  they  possess  have  received  more  attention 
than  formerly  and  that  these  values  have  been  stressed  is  an  un- 
doubted result  of  the  vocational  movement  in  education.  But 
after  all,  this  has  not  resulted  in  any  marked  change  in  character 
of  the  material  in  either  subject. 

Except  for  the  change  noted  in  connection  with  arithmetic,  the 
only  real  significant  change  in  the  field  of  mathematics  is  found  in 
the  reorganization  of  material.  Texts  in  "unified"  or  "mixed" 
mathematics  are  being  substituted  for  separate  texts  in  the  various 
mathematical  subjects.  For  example,  a  three-book  series^  for 
junior  high  schools  by  Wentworth,  Smith,  and  Brown  includes 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry  and  trigonometry.  Book  I  is  devoted 
to  arithmetic  and  geometry.  Book  II  to  algebra  and  arithmetic, 
and  Book  III  to  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry.  A  total  of 
less  than  three-fifths  of  the  space  in  Books  I  and  II  is  devoted  to 
arithmetic  and  a  little  more  than  one-fifth  to  each  of  the  other 
subjects.  The  subject-matter  of  arithmetic  emphasizes  to  some 
extent  the  industrial  and  commercial  aspects  of  the  subject.  The 
quantity  of  algebra  is  reduced  and  the  work  is  simplified.  Other- 
wise the  material  is  no  different  than  found  in  the  traditional  text. 
The  work  in  geometry  is  greatly  reduced  in  amount  and  is  also 
simplified.  It  is  in  fact  reduced  to  the  geometry  of  form  and 
position  in  Book  I  and  is  designed  chiefly  as  propaedeutic  to  more 
advanced  work.     About  one-half  of  Book  III  is  devoted  to  geom- 

»  Wentworth,  G.  H.,  Smith,  D.  E.,and  Brown,  J.  C,  Junior  High  Schod  Mathematics.  Book  I, 
11  and  III.     1916,  1918. 


230  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

etry,  a  little  less  than  one-third  to  algebra,  and  the  remainder  to 
trigonometry. 

The  Breslich  texts^  is  another  example  of  this  type  of  organiza- 
tion. The  author  claims  that  the  "practical  is  emphasized,"  but 
one  fails  to  note  any  significant  change  in  the  type  of  material 
selected.  The  purpose  of  the  series  is  well  set  forth  in  the  editor's 
preface. 

During  this  process  of  reform,  mathematics  has  changed  less  perhaps  than 
any  other  subject.  The  text  books  in  algebra  have  modified  but  little  their  list 
of  topics  or  other  mode  of  exposition.  Most  of  the  later  books  introduce  graphs 
and  have  graded  their  problems  better  and  have  omitted  some  of  the  intricacies 
which  were  included  a  generation  ago.  These  improvements  are  welcome  but 
insufficient  and  if  algebra  has  been  conservative,  what  shall  one  say  of  Euclidian 

geometry To  those  who  examine  this  book  from  the  point  of  view 

of  the  critical  mathematician,  it  ought  to  be  said  that  it  is  a  pedagogical  rather 
than  a  logical  organization  of  general  and  fundamental  mathematical  notions. 
Rigor  in  the  pure  mathematical  sense  is  not  attempted  in  definitions,  axioms,  or 
principles.  Insight  has  everywhere  been  the  controlling  consideration.  Ex- 
perimentation, intuition,  and  induction  are  fully  employed. 

Another  book  of  this  same  general  type  is  Evans  and  Marsh's 
First  Year  Mathematics.^  The  material  is  chiefly  algebra  with  a 
considerable  number  of  arithmetical  and  geometrical  exercises. 
There  is  less  material  than  in  the  other  texts  cited  above  and  there 
is  no  new  subject-matter  introduced.  The  book  is  chiefly  intended 
to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  a  further  study  of  mathematics. 
From  this  standpoint  the  material  is  well  selected  and  the  organiza- 
tion has  taken  into  account  the  propaedeutic  value  of  the  various 
topics  and  exercises. 

These  books  represent  the  new  movement  in  high-school 
mathematics.  Two  things  characterize  the  movement.  The  first 
is  a  breaking  down  of  the  hard  and  fast  divisions  of  subject-matter 
into  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry.  This 
results  in  new  units  of  instruction  which  consist  of  material  selected 
from  two  or  more  of  the  mathematical  subjects.  The  second 
characteristic  naturally  follows,  viz.,  a  reorganization  of  material. 
As  indicated  above  in  the  preface  quoted  "it  is  a  pedagogical 
rather  than  a  logical  organization  of  general  and  fundamental 
mathematical  notions." 

>  Breslich,  Ernst  R.,  First-Year  Mathematics,  1915  (1906,  1909);  Second-Year  Mathematics, 
1916  (1910);  Third-Year  Mathematics,  1917. 

« EvAMS,  G.  W.,  and  Marsh,  J.  A.,  First  Year  Mathematics,  1916. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  231 

An  examination  of  a  number  of  texts  in  both  algebra  and 
geometry  published  since  1900  does  not  reveal  any  significant 
changes  either  in  material  selected  or  in  organization.  Certain 
devices  have  been  used  in  some  of  the  newer  books  which  have 
perhaps  aided  more  or  less  in  better  teaching.  For  example,  in 
Reitz,  Crathorne,  and  Taylor's  Algebra  text  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  the  propaedeutic  value  of  the  subject-matter  as  it  relates  to 
higher  mathematics  and  science.  Principles  and  rules  are  printed 
in  black-faced  type  or  italics  and  numerous  historical  notes  are 
given.  Ford  and  Amerman's  Geometry  is  another  example  of  the 
use  of  devices  to  aid  the  teacher.  In  accordance  with  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  theorems  of  supposedly 
greatest  value,  are  printed  in  bold-faced  type,  those  of  somewhat 
less  importance  in  italics,  and  the  remainder  in  ordinary  type. 
Historical  notes  are  also  provided. 

Except  for  the  change  noted  in  the  organization  of  material  and 
the  increasing  importance  of  commercial  arithmetic,  little  change 
has  taken  place  in  the  field  of  mathematics. 

ENGLISH 

Some  of  the  newer  texts  in  English  show  that  important  changes 
have  taken  place  since  1900  both  in  the  character  of  material  used 
and  also  in  its  organization.  It  is  interesting  first  of  all  to  note  that 
unified  English  as  well  as  unified  mathematics  represents  the  new 
type  of  organization.  Brubaker's  and  Snyder's  High-School 
English^  is  an  example.  The  following  is  found  in  the  preface  of 
Book  I: 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  unify  the  teaching  of  English  in  the  high 
school.  English  as  a  school  study  is  more  than  grammar,  more  than  composi- 
tion, more  than  literature.  It  is  a  judicious  combination  of  these  three  com- 
ponent parts. 

In  the  preface  of  Book  II,  the  following  statement  is  made: 

High  school  English  is  here  considered  a  unit.  During  the  secondary  school 
period  the  pupil  should  become  familiar  with  the  structure  of  the  English  lan- 
guage by  the  study  of  the  uncontroverted  rules  of  usages  embodied  in  grammar; 
he  should  acquire  the  habitual  use  of  forceful  and  appropriate  language  in  speak- 
ing and  writing  by  the  practice  of  oral  and  written  self-expression;  he  should  form 
a  discriminating  taste  for  good  literature  by  much  reading,  together  with  prof- 
itable discussion  regarding  the  form  and  content  of  the  literature  read.  This 
volume  seeks  to  be  a  guide  in  such  work. 

>  B&UBAKEB,  A.  R.,  and  Snydex,  Dokothv,  ff»g*  School  Englisk.    B«oks  I  and  II,  1910. 


232  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

As  indicated  in  the  prefaces  the  authors  have  ignored  the 
traditional  divisions,  grammar,  composition,  rhetoric,  and  litera- 
ture, and  have  attempted  to  present  English  as  a  unit.  In  this 
they  seem  to  have  succeeded.  They  have  left  off  labels  and 
selected  the  material  and  organized  it  with  reference  to  training  in 
composition,  both  oral  and  written,  and  have  used  literature  as 
one  of  the  means  to  this  end  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  forming 
"a.  discriminating  taste  for  good  literature  by  much  reading." 
The  material  dealing  with  grammar  is  put  in  an  appendix  covering 
about  fifty  pages. 

Another  text  of  this  same  general  type  is  Webster's  English  for 
Secondary  Schools.^  It  is  made  clear  by  a  statement  in  the  preface 
that  the  author  has  not  sought  to  unify  the  work  so  much  as  he 
has  to  make  composition  the  center  around  which  to  organize  the 
work. 

In  presenting  English  for  Secondary  Schools  it  will  served  purpose  to  state 
the  principles  that  have  guided  in  making  the  book.  It  is  soine  years  since  the 
study  of  literature  gave  way  to  the  more  practical  study  of  composition  in  which 
the  mass  of  rules  concerning  diction  has  been  superseded  by  a  few  principles 
designed  simply  to  secure  clearness  of  expression.  Furthermore,  it  is  now  evident 
that  no  mere  statement  of  these  principles,  however  clear  and  accurate  it  may  be, 
is  as  illuminating  to  the  young  learner  as  a  clear  exposition  of  how  successful 
writers  have  done  their  work.  Few  teachers  would  now  have  the  hardihood  to 
separate  the  study  of  composition  from  the  study  of  literature  and  all  teachers 
know  that  the  best  instructors  in  English  composition  are  those  writers  who 
have  served  their  apprenticeship  and  have  been  accepted  in  the  world  of  literature 
as  masters  of  their  craft. 

This  no  doubt  indicates  the  use  of  literature  as  a  source  of  material 
in  composition  but  its  chief  use  is  clearly  for  acquiring  the  technique 
of  expression.  Commenting  further  concerning  the  source  of 
material  and  the  motivation  of  the  work  he  says: 

There  must  be  a  definite,  concrete  problem  upon  which  the  student  is  to  focus 
his  energy  and  ingenuity.  Among  these  concrete  problems,  none  are  so  sure  to 
call  forth  eager  active  minds  as  those  which  have  immediate  and  local  interest. 
So  that,  while  the  exercises  given  here  are  good  as  models  and  suggestions,  those 
most  certain  to  bring  out  expression  are  the  ones  that  every  instructor  finds  ready 
at  hand  in  the  life  of  the  community  where  he  labors. 

Frank's  Elements  of  High-School  English^  is  another  instance  of 
the  use  of  a  title  similar  to  the  ones  already  cited.     Like  Webster's 

»  Webster,  W.  F.,  English  Jor  Secondary  Schools,  1912. 

'  Frank,  Maude  M.,  Elements  of  High  School  English,  1915. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  233 

text  this  one  is  essentially  a  composition  book.  Emphasis  is  placed 
upon  oral  as  well  as  written  composition,  and  provision  is  made  for 
"dramatic  effort  in  the  classroom."  This  book  devotes  con- 
siderable attention  to  spelling  and  an  undue  amount  of  space  is 
devoted  to  grammar.  No  attempt  is  made  to  use  literature  either 
as  a  source  of  material  or  as  a  model  for  technique  in  composition. 
These  texts  will  serve  as  illustrations  of  the  movement  under 
way  to  break  up  the  traditional  organization  of  subject-matter  in 
the  field  of  English.  It  is  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  the  practice  now 
becoming  prevalent  of  regarding  all  instruction  in  English  from 
two  standpoints,  viz.,  composition  and  literature.  This  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  report  of  the  Commission  on  Units  and  Curricula  of 
the  North  Central  Association.^   This  report  reads  as  follows: 

The  acquisition  of  ideas  and  the  development  of  skill,  habits,  ideals  and 
attitudes  which  the  English  studies  are  designed  for  have  reference  to  the  two 
aspects  of  life — work  and  leisure,  production  and  play — may  be  found  tlie  basis 
for  a  vital  and  economical  organization  of  the  English  course.  The  study  of 
books  of  an  informational  or  persuasive  character  should  support  the  study  of 
oral  and  written  composition  for  utilitarian  purposes;  likewise  the  practice  of 
literary  or  creative  composition,  of  reading  aloud,  and  of  dramatizing  should  aid 
the  appreciative  reading  of  novels,  dramas,  essays  and  poems.  The  terms 
"composition"  and  "literature"  are  used  to  designate  these  two  types  of  activities 
in  this  report  and  they  should  represent  separate  units  with  equal  credits  in  the 
high  school. 

This  recognition  of  "separate  units'  is  not  always  found  in  the 
texts  but  the  two  terms  "composition"  and  "literature"  are  used  to 
include  all  of  the  subject-matter  presented. 

Another  way  in  which  this  breaking  up  of  traditional  divisions 
is  manifested  is  in  the  courses  in  commercial  and  business  English. 
These  courses  are  primarily  composition  courses  and  in  this  respect 
are  unlike  the  texts  referred  to  above.  But  in  this  class  of  texts, 
grammar  and  rhetoric  are  not  considered  as  separate  subjects  or 
even  as  separate  units.  Material  is  chosen  from  these  subjects  and 
this  together  with  the  content  material  is  organized  as  a  unit. 
An  example  of  this  class  of  texts  is  Buhlig's  Business  English^    . 

Literature  has  from  the  beginning  been  regarded  as  a  separate 
unit.  In  the  case  of  composition  this  has  become  true  only  recently. 
The  evolution  of  this  subject  from  being  regarded  as  an  irregular 
general  exercise  to  its  present  status  has  been  explained  in  Part  II. 

>  Report  of  Commission  on  Units  and  Curricula,  North  Central  Association  of  Suondary  Schools  and 
Colleges,  1918,  p.  10. 

»  BuHLiG,  Rose,  Business  English,  1914. 


234  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Its  first  direct  connection  with  other  English  subjects  as  there 
pointed  out  was  with  grammar,  next  with  rhetoric,  and  finally 
with  literature.  Titles  of  textbooks  such  as  Elements  of  Compost' 
Hon  and  Grammar,  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  and  Composition- 
Literature  show  this  development.  Composition  has  now  come  to 
occupy  an  equal  place  with  literature,  and  in  the  most  of  these 
texts,  such  titles  as  First  Year  English  and  the  like,  chief  attention 
is  directed  to  composition.  The  courses  in  English  given  in  more 
or  less  detail  in  the  published  courses  of  study  also  show  this  same 
emphasis. 

The  books  bearing  the  older  titles  indicate  this  emphasis  upon 
composition.  Scott  and  Denney's  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric^ 
is  an  example.  This  is  essentially  a  composition  text  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  literature  is  included  as  a  source  of  material. 
Concerning  this  matter  of  topics  and  composition  material  the 
authors  have  the  following  to  say  in  the  preface: 

Composition  topics  are  drawn  not  only  from  literature  and  student  life  but 
from  the  vocations  toward  which  the  various  classes  of  students  are  naturally 
tending.  The  teacher  is  thus  enabled  to  take  advantage  of  a  powerful  means  of 
interest  and  incitement  in  making  assignments  and  to  consult  the  known  tastes 
and  inclinations  of  the  individual  students. 

The  same  emphasis  upon  these  sources  for  topics  and  material  is 
indicated  in  the  report  of  the  Commission  on  Units  and  Curricula.* 

There  should  be  a  constant  effort  to  relate  the  work  in  composition  with  the 
pupils'  experience  and  interest,  both  in  and  out  of  school.  This  will  include 
drawing  upon  among  other  things,  his  school  work  and  other  school  activities, 
social  and  athletic,  as  well  as  his  extra  school  work,  amusements,  home,  and 
other  interests. 

The  history  of  literature  has  continued  to  hold  an  important 
place  in  the  curriculum.  No  marked  change  has  taken  place  since 
1900  in  the  character  of  subject-matter.  A  recent  tendency,  how- 
ever, is  evident  to  place  more  emphasis  upon  literature  itself  and 
relatively  less  upon  biography  of  authors.  The  text  by  Moody 
and  Lovett'  is  an  example  of  the  older  sort  which  contained  com- 
paratively little  literature.  A  text  quite  similar  to  the  above,  so 
far  as  content  is  concerned,  is  that  by  Pancoast  and  Shelley.* 
Newcomer's  book^  places  more  emphasis  upon  the  literature  itself, 

>  Scott,  F.  N.,  and  Denney,  J.  V.,  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  1911. 
»  Cf.  p.  10. 

•  Moody,  W.  V.,and  Lovett,  R.  M.,  A  History  of  English  Literature,  1902. 

♦  Pancoast,  Henry  S.,and  Shelly,  Percy  Van  Dyke,  First  Book  in  English  Literature,  1910. 
'  Newcomer,  Alfonso  Gerald,  English  Literature,  1905. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  235 

selections  being  used  liberally  for  purposes  of  illustration.  A 
revision  of  Halleck's  earlier  work  (1900)  shows  the  same  tendency.^ 
The  text^  by  Rankin  and  Aiken  shows  more  clearly  the  later  empha- 
sis as  the  following  statement  in  the  preface  indicates: 

The  chief  value  in  the  discussion  of  literature  is  gained  when  the  student 
has  learned  to  read  the  literature  under  discussion. 

The  author  carries  out  this  viewpoint  by  including  in  the  text 
numerous  selections  from  literature. 

As  would  be  expected,  numerous  classics  have  largely  furnished 
the  reading  matter  in  courses  in  English.  Recently,  as  shown  by 
published  courses  of  study,  current  literature  is  coming  to  be  used 
much  more  than  formerly.  The  whole  tendency  of  the  recent 
movement  in  teaching  English  is  away  from  the  formal.  Old 
divisions  of  subject-matter  are  being  ignored,  the  interests  of  stu- 
dents are  being  more  fully  taken  into  account,  and  social  demands 
of  various  sorts  are  beginning  to  function  in  the  selection  of  material. 
Theoretically  the  correlation  of  English  with  other  school  subjects 
is  receiving  emphasis  but  not  much,  apparently,  in  practice  has 
been  accomplished. 

SCIENCE 

The  extremely  formal  types  of  subject-matter  in  the  various 
sciences  referred  to  in  Part  II  resulted  in  widespread  dissatisfaction 
with  science-teaching.  Evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  decline  of 
interest  particularly  in  the  physical  sciences  as  shown  by  substantial 
relative  decrease  in  the  number  of  pupils  pursuing  these  subjects. 
General  dissatisfaction  is  also  revealed  by  the  discussions  of  science- 
teaching  in  educational  meetings  and  in  some  of  the  publications 
dealing  with  the  pedagogy  of  science  subjects.  As  a  result  of  this, 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  eliminate  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
highly  specialized  courses  in  each  of  the  sciences  by  organizing 
courses  in  general  science.  This  movement  had  its  beginning  about 
1905  and  has  made  considerable  progress  since  that  time.  Table 
XXIX  shows  that  only  one  school  offered  such  a  course  while 
Table  XXX  contains  nineteen  schools  offering  the  subject. 

It  is  very  obvious  that  the  movement  so  far  as  it  has  affected 
educational  practice  is  of  very  recent  origin  and  at  the  present  time 
more  than  half  of  the  schools  provide  no  such  course.     It  should  be 

1  Halleck,  Reuben  Post,  New  English  Literature,  1913. 

»  Rankin,  Thomas  E.,  and  Aiken,  Wilfred  A.,  English  Literature,  1917. 


236  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

noted  also  that  even  in  the  schools  which  offer  a  course  in  general 
science,  the  traditional  units  as  botany,  physics,  and  the  like  are 
still  provided.  The  texts  in  this  subject  thus  far  published  are 
manifestly  not  intended  to  supplant  the  texts  in  the  different  science 
subjects,  but  are  intended  rather  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to 
them.  In  this  respect,  the  general  science  texts  differ  from  the 
texts  in  English  and  mathematics  referred  to  in  previous  sections 
of  this  chapter.  Several  texts  have  been  published  since  1910  which 
purport  to  ignore  the  traditional  divisions  and  which  claim  to 
present  subject-matter  chosen  with  reference  to  definite  educative 
values.  At  first  glance,  these  books  remind  one  of  the  older  type 
of  organization  called  natural  history.  It  requires  but  a  superficial 
examination,  however,  to  reveal  the  difference.  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  they  are  books  dealing  with  general  science,  each  is 
written  more  or  less  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  particular  science 
in  which  the  author  was  trained.  All  are  not  open  to  this  charge 
in  the  same  degree,  but  the  fact  does  hold  true  of  all  of  them.  In 
view  of  this,  as  would  be  expected,  the  various  texts  differ  widely 
as  to  character  of  subject-matter  and  plan  of  organization.  The 
books  also  differ  as  to  the  purpose  of  such  a  course.  Not  all  the 
books  reveal  either  in  the  preface  or  context  the  point  of  view  as  to 
purpose  while  in  others  the  purpose  is  stated  or  clearly  manifest. 

Snyder's  text^  is  essentially  a  physical  geography.  The  author 
says  in  the  preface: 

First  year  science  deals  with  the  earth  and  the  sun  in  their  relation  to  man. 
This  treatment  has  three  advantages;  it  gives  the  book  unity;  it  gives  it  practical 
interest,  and  it  offers  all  the  earth  science  needed  to  meet  such  requirements  as 
those  of  the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board. 

The  reason  for  including  material  from  all  the  sciences  is  stated 
as  follows: 

All  the  subjects  of  elementary  school  science — physics,  chemistry,  meteorol- 
ogy, botany,  zoology,  astronomy,  physiography,  forestry,  and  agriculture — are 
treated  so  that  the  pupil  can  find  out  for  himself  what  ones  he  wishes  to  study 
later  in  the  course. 

Another  text^  definitely  rejects  this  purpose.  In  the  preface 
the  following  statement  is  made: 

This  book  is  written  in  the  belief  that  science  instruction  in  the  first  year 
high  school  should  not  aim  primarily  to  survey  the  entire  field  of  nature  and 

'  Snyder,  William  H.,  First  Year  Science,  1914. 

'  Barber.  F.  D.,  Fuller,  M.  L.,  Prosser,  J.  L.,  and  Adaus,  H.  W.,  First  Course  in  General  Science, 
1916.  This  book  is  a  revision  and  enlargement  of  the  Elements  of  Physical  Science  by  the  senior  author  in 
1906. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  237 

present  scattered  bits  and  choice  morsels  from  every  special  science  in  order 
that  the  pupil  may  decide  which  he  will  omit.  Nor  should  first  year  general 
science  be  regarded  primarily  as  an  introduction  to  a  foundation  for  the  special 

sciences  he  may  study  later It  must  be  justified  by  its  own  intrinsic  value 

as  a  training  for  life's  work. 

The  book  is  predominantly  physical  science  which  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  it  is  a  revision  of  an  earlier  text  by  the  senior 
author  who  is  a  teacher  of  physics.  Sharp  divisions  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  several  sciences  is  avoided,  the  material  is  well  blended, 
and  the  organization  is  good. 

Hessler's  text^  is  manifestly  intended  as  introductory  to  the 
physical  sciences.     He  says  in  the  preface: 

While  physics  and  chemistry  as  such  ought  not  to  be  put  into  the  early  years 
of  the  high  school,  yet  instruction  in  the  simpler  principles  of  these  sciences  can 
be  given  in  a  first-year  General  Science  course.  The  most  important  part  of  this 
course  will  be  introductory  notions  of  physical  and  chemical  phenomena  but  the 
course  should  include  more  than  this. 

Other  science  material,  chiefly  botany  and  physiology,  is  included 
but  is  of  secondary  importance. 

Another  book  having  a  different  purpose  than  Snyder's  text  is 
Clark's  An  Introduction  to  Science}  The  purpose  of  the  book  and 
also  the  general  character  of  the  contents  is  revealed  in  the  preface. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  start  young  high  school  pupils  on  scientific  proj- 
ects which  will  influence  their  present  lives  and  which  under  different  guises 
will  equally  influence  for  good  their  future  lives.  Among  the  scientific  projects 
presented  to  the  pupils  are  those  of  the  selection  of  economic  means  of  dietary 
standards;  the  selection  of  suitable  paints,  oils  and  varnishes  for  actual  daily  use; 
the  examination  of  different  fuels  and  their  adaptation  to  furnace  and  kitchen 
range;  the  investigation  of  home  and  school  lighting  and  its  influence  on  eyesight; 
the  utilization  of  simple  labor  saving  devices  to  relieve  physical  exertion;  the 
employment  of  chemical  agents  to  transform  useless  waste  products,  such  as 
grease  and  sewage  into  useful  products  such  as  soaps  and  fertilizers;  and  the 
application  of  hygienic  facts  and  theories  to  school,  home  and  community  sani- 
tation. 

The  projects  show  as  does  also  an  examination  of  the  text  itself  that 
physical  science  is  stressed  with  special  emphasis  upon  chemistry 
of  an  applied  sort. 

One  further  example'  of  this  class  of  texts  will  be  mentioned. 
This  book  is  evidently  similar  in  its  purpose  to  the  one  by  Clark, 

'  Hessler,  John  C,  The  First  Year  oj  Science,  1914. 

'  Clark.  Bertha  M.,  An  Introduction  to  Science.  1915. 

'  Caldwell,  O.  W.,  and  Eikenberry,  W.  L.,  Elements  oJ  General  Science,  1914. 


238  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

viz.,  "to  present  a  body  of  science  material  that  will  appeal  to  the 
everyday  experiences  of  young  people  and  that  will  function  in 
their  daily  living."  The  emphasis  is  perhaps  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  various  sciences  than  in  the  other  books  named, 
thus  indicating  less  than  the  usual  bias  of  specialists.  No  attempt 
is  made  to  present  a  section  of  this  science  and  of  that  one  as  such, 
and  pedagogical  rather  than  logical  considerations  control  in  the 
organization  of  material.  The  book  is  divided  into  five  parts, 
each  part  being  designated  as  follows:  Part  I,  "The  Air,"  Part  II, 
"Water  and  Its  Uses,"  Part  III,  "Work  and  Energy,"  Part  IV, 
"The  Earth's  Crust,"  Part  V,  "Life  Upon  the  Earth."  Numerous 
applications  are  made  to  the  practical  needs  of  life  and  the  everyday 
experiences  of  the  students  are  taken  into  account. 

As  has  been  said  the  chief  thing  of  interest  connected  with  this 
so-called  general  science  material  is  the  departure  from  the  older 
type  of  organization  of  science  material  and  the  forming  of  a  unit 
made  up  of  material  selected  from  several  of  the  sciences.  This, 
however,  has  not  been  the  only  result.  An  attempt  is  made  to 
choose  material  having  what  is  assumed  to  be  a  more  practical 
value.  This  means  that  less  emphasis  is  placed  upon  scientific 
training  and  more  upon  the  content  value  of  the  subject-matter. 
The  quotation  given  from  the  preface  of  Clark's  text  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  this.  That  some  authors  have  succeeded  in  greater  degree 
than  others  is  obvious,  and  it  is  entirely  probable  that  the  degree 
of  difference  in  this  respect  is  not  a  matter  of  accident  but  of 
purpose. 

When  we  turn  to  the  more  recent  texts  in  the  separate  sciences, 
we  find  that  the  authors  of  these  have  been  more  or  less  influenced 
by  the  same  considerations  that  have  resulted  in  the  modified  char- 
acter of  the  subject-matter  in  the  general  science  text,  viz.,  the 
purpose  to  make  science  instruction  less  formal  and  more  vital. 
It  is  true  that  some  of  the  recent  books  do  not  give  evidence  of  any 
significant  change  in  the  character  of  the  subject-matter,  but  many 
of  them  do,  and  enough  of  them  to  make  it  clear  that  profound 
changes  are  taking  place  in  science  instruction. 

The  titles  of  some  of  these  books  indicate  the  change  that  has 
come  about.  Examples  of  such  titles  are  as  follows:  Practical 
Chemistry  for  High  School  Sttidents,^  Practical  Applied  Chemistry,^ 

'  Cook,  Charles  G.,  Practical  Chemistry  for  High  School  Students,  1913. 
»  AlXYN,  Lewis  B.,  Elementary  Applied  Chemistry,  1912. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  239 

Elements  of  Household  Chemistry,^  Practical  Physics  for  Secondary 
Schools,^  Physics  for  the  Household,^  Practical  Zoology,*  Practical 
Botany,^  and  the  like. 

Cook  says  in  his  preface : 

This  book  is  intended  for  students  in  the  second  year  of  the  high  school. 
It  is  its  purpose  to  bring  the  pupil  into  closer  contact  with  the  things  of  everyday 
life,  to  give  him  an  insight  into  the  nature  of  chemical  processes  with  which  all 
of  us  come  more  or  less  into  contact,  to  furnish  him  with  some  chemical  knowledge 
of  the  type  necessary  for  his  health  and  comfort,  and  thus  adjust  him  to  his 
environment.  In  doing  this  no  attempt  is  made  to  treat  the  subject  in  a  theo- 
retical way.     In  fact,  but  little  of  the  theory  of  chemistry  is  mentioned 

The  mathematical  side  of  chemistry  finds  no  place  in  a  text  of  this 
sort,  but  a  chapter  on  "Chemical  Arithmetic"  is  included  in  the 
appendix.  Not  all  texts  fulfil  the  promises  of  the  prefaces,  but  the 
author  of  this  book  holds  rather  closely  to  his  purpose. 

One  of  the  early  books  of  the  new  type  of  physics  is  the  text^  by 
Mann  and  Twiss.  This  is  a  revision  of  an  earlier  edition  published 
in  1905.  The  plan  is  that  of  the  project  or  problem.  The  authors 
state  a  rewriting  of  the  book  was  necessary  in  order  to  apply  the 
principles  to  subject-matter  more  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  the 
pupils.  "Part  one  contains  material  that  should  be  of  interest  to 
everybody."  The  problems  selected  are  rather  closely  related  to 
to  the  experiences  and  interests  of  high-school  students  and  call 
for  the  practical  application  of  the  principles.  The  organization 
of  the  material  shows  that  pedagogical  considerations  have  con- 
trolled. Another  book^  of  this  class  is  the  one  by  Black  and  Davis. 
The  authors  say  in  the  preface : 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book,  we  have  tried  to  select  only  those  topics 
which  were  of  vital  interest  whether  or  not  they  intend  to  continue  their  study 
of  Physics  in  the  college  course.  Particularly  we  have  decided  that  the  value 
of  the  information  side  of  such  a  course  lies  in  its  application  to  the  machinery  of 
everyday  living.  Everybody  needs  to  know  something  about  the  making  of 
electric  motors,  optical  instruments,  automobiles,  and  all  those  labor-saving 
devices,  vacuum  cleaners,  fireless  cookers,  pressure  cookers,  and  electric  irons, 
which  will  be  found  in  many  American  homes.  We  have,  therefore,  drawn  as 
much  of  our  illustrative  material  as  possible  from  the  common  devices  in  modern 

>  Snell,  John  F.,  Elements  of  Household  Chemistry,  1914. 

'  Black,  Henry,  and  Davis,  Harry  D.,  Practical  Physics  for  Secondary  Scltools,  1913. 

•  Lynde,  Carlton  J.,  Physics  of  the  Household,  1914. 

•  HiGNER,  Robert  W.,  Practical  ZoSlogy,  1915. 

'  Bergen.  J.  Y.,  and  Caldwell,  O.  W.,  Practical  Botany,  1913. 

•  Makn,  Charles  R.,  and  Twiss,  George  R.,  Physics,  1910.    Revised  edition. 

'  Black,  Henry,  and  Davis,  Harry  D.,  Practical  Physics  for  Secondary  Schools,  1913. 


240  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

life.  We  see  no  reason  why  this  should  detract  from  the  educational  value  of  the 
study  of  physics,  for  one  can  learn  to  think  straight  by  thinking  about  an  electric 
generator  as  well  as  by  thinking  about  a  Geissler  tube. 

The  criticism  of  the  formal  type  of  text  implied  in  the  last  sentence 
is  quite  in  harmony  with  WoodhuH's  characterization  of  physics- 
teaching  found  in  Part  II.  The  new  point  of  view  in  teaching  the 
physical  sciences  is  evidently  not  shared  by  the  makers  of  some  of 
the  books  still  widely  used.  Carhart  and  Chute^  in  referring  to 
the  dissatisfaction  with  science-teaching  have  the  following  to  say 
in  their  preface : 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  meet  this  vague  dissatisfaction  by  presenting 
many  familiar  illustrations  of  the  practical  application  of  physics  but  with  an 
unsatisfactory  treatment  of  tl*e  fundamental  principles  upon  which  these  applica- 
tions are  based.  As  a  result  pupils  reach  the  end  of  their  study  with  few  definite 
ideas  and  little  knowledge  of  physics.  This  condition  was  plainly  so  much  worse 
than  the  former  one  that  teachers  who  had  been  drawn  into  the  experiment  have 
generally  perferred  to  return  to  the  regular  type  of  book. 

How  accurately  this  describes  the  situation  in  1912,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say.  That  it  is  not  descriptive  of  conditions  now,  so 
far  as  returning  to  the  regular  type  of  book  is  concerned,  is  evident 
from  the  number  and  the  character  of  the  newer  types  of  books  in 
use  in  the  schools. 

In  the  biological  sciences  the  same  general  tendency  is  apparent 
as  in  the  case  of  the  physical  sciences.  One  of  the  first  texts  in 
botany  of  the  newer  type  was  one  by  Bergen  and  Caldwell.^  This 
book  is  marked  by  an  emphasis  upon  the  practical,  i.e.,  the  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural  phases  of  the  subjects.  Larger  units  are  chosen 
than  in  a  morphological  type  of  book  and  are  chosen  from  the 
standpoint  of  these  practical  utilities.  Plant  nutrition,  relation  of 
nutrition  to  soil,  of  parasitic  plants  to  other  plants  and  to  man,  plant 
breeding,  and  forestry  are  examples  of  topics  considered.  In  treating 
lower  plant  forms,  fungi  receive  special  attention  because  of  the 
practical  bearing  upon  the  economic  phase  of  botany.  Quoting 
from  the  preface: 

The  elements  of  plant  life  and  structure  are  presented  synthetically  rather 
than  by  use  of  special  divisions  of  botanical  study  which  are  more  helpful  to 
advanced  students  than  beginners. 

The  book  was  avowedly  written  to  meet  the  practical  demands  of 
everyday  life  and  the  organization  is  indicated  by  the  quotation 

1  Carhart,  Henry  A.,  and  Chute,  H.  N.,  Principles  of  Physics,  1912. 
'  Bergen,  J.  Y.,and  Caldwell,  O.  W.,  Practical  Botany,  1913. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  241 

above.  The  fact  of  promise  of  similar  change  in  the  character  of 
text  in  zoology  was  indicated  in  Part  II  by  brief  reference  to 
Davenport's  Introduction  to  Zoology  published  in  1900.  The  change, 
however,  came  about  slowly  and  no  radical  departure  from  the  old 
order  of  things  is  noted  until  after  1910.  A  good  example  of  a  text 
in  zoology  which  attempts  much  the  same  thing  in  its  field  as 
Bergen  and  Caldwell's  book  does  in  botany  is  one  by  Higner.^  In 
the  preface  the  author  says: 

The  word  "practical"  in  the  title  chosen,  shows  that  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  present  those  facts  and  theories  about  animals  which  will  have  the  most  practi- 
cal bearing  upon  the  daily  life  of  the  student.  It  refers  not  only  to  the  economic 
side  of  the  subject,  but  also  to  the  elements  that  are  of  greater  intellectual  value. 
....  The  constant  reference  to  the  relations  of  animals  to  environment  and 
the  selection  of  common  animals,  especially  those  of  economic  importance,  for 
illustrative  purposes,  tend  to  stimulate  the  natural  interest  of  boys  and  girls  in 
animal  life. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  topics  discussed  in  the  text: 
"Insects  of  the  Household,"  "The  House  Fly  and  Disease,"  "Mos- 
quitoes and  Disease,"  "The  Relation  of  Birds  and  Man,"  "The 
Relation  of  Mammals  to  Man." 

Physiology  does  not  seem  to  have  shared  with  other  biological 
science  the  influence  of  this  new  movement  in  science-teaching. 
The  textbooks  used  in  the  high  school  at  least  do  not  show  the  same 
marked  tendency  to  get  away  from  the  old  anatomical  kind  of 
material.  The  texts  used  in  the  grades,  on  the  contrary,  do  show 
this  influence.  The  coming  in  of  general  science  has  no  doubt 
been  responsible  for  the  decline  of  physiology  as  a  high-school 
subject.  These  books  contain  more  or  less  material  which  might 
properly  belong  in  texts  on  hygiene  as  also  do  the  botanies  and 
zoologies.  Even  chemistry  makes  its  contribution  to  health 
instruction  in  much  greater  degree  than  formerly.  All  of  these 
things  taken  together  might  readily  account  for  the  failure  of 
physiology  as  a  separate  subject  from  sharing  in  the  general  move- 
ment. 

In  the  earth  sciences,  there  seems  to  have  been  no  significant 
change  since  1900.  Geology  has  declined  in  importance  almost  to 
the  vanishing  point  and  physical  geography  has  also  declined 
although  not  in  the  same  degree.  It  will  be  remembered  that  both 
of  these  subjects  underwent  important  changes  in  the  last  years  of 

»  HrcNER,  Robert  W..  Practical  ZoSlogy,  1915. 


242  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

the  nineteenth  century  somewhat  similar  to  the  changes  which 
have  been  taking  place  in  the  other  sciences  more  recently.  The 
character  of  these  changes  is  explained  in  Part  II  and  further  dis- 
cussion is  unnecessary. 

THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

Changes  in  this  field  in  the  character  of  subject-matter  have 
been  very  important.  The  emphasis  upon  commercial  and  indus- 
trial education  finds  expression  here  to  a  considerable  extent. 
History  has  witnessed  rather  remarkable  modification  in  the 
character  of  material  found  in  textbooks.  In  the  first  place,  this 
change  is  made  clear  by  a  new  type  of  text — commercial  and  indus- 
trial histories.  The  second  evidence  of  change  is  found  in  the 
character  of  material  contained  in  the  type  of  textbooks  which 
formerly  gave  little  attention  to  anything  except  political  and 
military  history.  Some  of  these  books  now  stress  the  industrial 
and  commercial  life  of  the  people,  and  all  recent  books  give  more 
or  less  attention  to  social  history.  Texts  in  European  history 
show  conclusively  this  trend  toward  a  discussion  of  events  other 
than  political  and  military.  This  change  has  taken  place  chiefly 
in  the  text  published  since  1910  although  some  exceptions  are 
found  in  earlier  books.  An  example  of  the  new  type  of  text  is 
found  in  Webster's  History  of  Commerce}  This  text  places  a  good 
deal  of  emphasis  upon  the  history  of  commerce  but  also  devotes  a 
good  deal  of  attention  to  political  history  which  seems  to  bear 
little  relation  to  the  purpose  of  the  book  as  indicated  in  the  title. 
Two  later  books''  show  clearly  the  importance  attached  to  events 
pertaining  to  the  development  of  commerce  and  industry.  The 
point  of  view  determining  the  organization  of  material  is  indicated 
by  Smith  in  the  preface  as  follows: 

In  the  part  dealing  with  the  United  States,  I  have  described  the  industries 
rather  than  regions  and  states.  The  wheat  industry,  for  example,  forms  certain 
environmental  conditions  that  exist  in  many  states  and  countries.  Therefore, 
I  have  not  hesitated  to  refer  by  way  of  comparison  to  the  great  wheat-producing 
regions  in  other  countries. 

This  significant  statement  is  found  in  the  preface  of  Herrick's  text: 

Not  many  years  ago  Edward  A.  Freeman's  famous  dictum  "history  is  past 
politics  and  politics  are  present  history,"  found  general  acceptance,  but  this 
sentiment  is  no  longer  generally  approved.     Clearly  there  is  at  present  a  desire 

>  Webster,  W.  C,  General  History  of  Commerce,  1903. 

•  Smith.  J.  R.,  Commerce  and  Industry,  1916,  and  Herrick,  C.  A.,  History  o]  Commerce  and  Industry, 
1917. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  243 

to  select  those  interests  of  the  past  which  most  clearly  bear  on  the  present.  For 
a  considerable  time,  the  tendency  has  been  obvious  for  both  writers  and  teachers 
to  emphasize  economic  and  social  history  rather  than  the  history  of  war  or  the 
evolution  of  governmental  systems. 

One  might  expect,  of  course,  this  point  of  view  in  the  books 
referred  to  above,  but  it  is  not  confined  to  texts  of  this  sort. 
West,  in  the  revised  edition  of  his  Ancient  World}  has  this  to  say 
in  his  preface: 

It  is  doubtful  if  a  textbook  of  this  sort  should  give  room  to  any  incident 
which  the  student  cannot  articulate  with  the  life  of  to-day — or  which  is  not 
essential  to  understanding  the  evolution  of  important  conditions  which  can  be  so 
articulated. 

The  content  of  the  text  itself  shows  that  this  point  of  view  has 
prevailed  in  the  selection  of  material.  The  following  topics  are 
examples:  "Contributions  of  Civilization,"  "Industry  and  Art," 
"Literature  and  Learning,"  "Society  and  Culture,"  "Religion  and 
Morals,"  "Culture  and  Morals,"  and  the  like. 

The  modern  history  text  by  Knowlton  and  Howe*  shows  clearly 
the  departure  from  the  traditional  type  of  historical  material.  In 
the  preface  the  authors  say: 

An  understanding  of  contemporary  Europe  is  largely  dependent  upon  an 
application  of  two  lines  of  development  which  have  their  origin  back  in  the  early 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  one  gave  rise  to  modern  methods  of  carry- 
ing on  commerce  and  industry;  the  other  gave  us  a  new  conception  of  the  relation 
of  government  and  governed.  In  other  words  to  form  a  proper  estimate  of  exist- 
ing conditions  in  Europe  we  must  follow  step  by  step  the  revolutionary  changes 
in  commerce  and  industry  and  the  tremendous  advance  of  democracy  which  have 
in  a  special  manner  characterized  the  history  of  the  past  century  and  a  quarter. 

These  two  points  of  view  evidently  control  the  selection  of  subject- 
matter. 

Further  evidence  of  this  important  change  in  the  character  of 
history  material  is  furnished  by  other  texts.'  Ashley  is  the  author 
of  a  series  of  texts  published  recently  which  show  the  change  that 
has  taken  place.  Other  texts  show  the  same  tendency  in  less 
degree.*  These  revised  texts,  however,  show  the  continued  in- 
fluence of  the  earlier  viewpoint  in  the  emphasis  placed  upon  the 
traditional  types  of  material. 

1  West.  William  M.,  The  Ancient  World  from  the  Earliest  Time  to  800  A.D.,  Revised  Edition. 

'  Knowlton,  D.  C,  and  Howe,  S.  B.,  Essentials  in  Modern  European  History,  1917. 

'  Ashley,  Roscoe  Lewis,  Ancient  Civilization,  1915;  Medieval  Civilization,  1915;  Modern  Civilisa- 
tion, 1918. 

*  Webster,  Hutton,  Ancient  History,  1913;  Myers,  P.  V.  N.,  Ancient  History,  1916,  second  revised 
edition;  Morey,  Wm.  C,  Ancient  Peoples:  A  Revision  of  Morey's  Outlines  of  Ancient  History,  1915. 


244  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

The  influence  of  the  same  point  of  view  is  also  evident  in  the 
case  of  United  States  history.  Thompson^  in  the  preface  of  his 
text  says: 

In  preparing  the  following  pages  for  students  who  are  about  to  enter  seriously 
on  the  study  of  United  States  history,  I  have  been  guided  in  the  selection  of 
material  and  in  the  presentation  of  the  material  by  a  desire  to  place  more  empha- 
sis on  the  industrial  and  social  activities  of  the  American  people  than  is  usually 
placed  by  writers  of  textbooks  which  we  may  for  convenience  call  political  his- 
tories. 

About  fifty  pages  are  devoted  to  growth  and  improvement  in 
agriculture,  country  life,  commerce,  transportation,  and  communi- 
cation. Considerable  attention  is  also  devoted  to  the  merchant 
marine  and  to  the  development  of  industry  since  the  Civil  War. 
Mussey's^  text  shows  the  same  general  emphasis. 

The  importance  of  the  industrial  phase  of  history  is  recognized 
to  some  extent  by  McLaughlin  in  the  1913  edition  of  his  History  of 
the  American  Nation.^    He  says  in  the  preface: 

Every  passing  year  seems  to  add  significance  to  the  important  general  phases 
of  industrial  growth  during  the  last  fifty  years,  while  the  relations  of  government 
to  industry  and  to  tasks  of  social  betterment  are  more  and  more  the  subject  for 
discussion.  This  does  not  mean  that  history  should  be  written  from  the  point  of 
view  of  industrial  growth  alone;  on  the  contrary,  perhaps  never  before  was  there 
such  need  for  understanding  political  history  ....  because  political  activity, 
the  state,  the  government  and  law  are  now  clearly  involved  in  every  problem  of 
industrial  control,  in  every  plan  for  social  regeneration. 

The  text  itself  emphasizes  political  history  but  devotes  considerable 
space  to  social  questions  [pp.  128-98]  and  to  agriculture  and  indus- 
trial development  in  general  [pp.  340-85].  Some  attention  is 
devoted  to  commercial  and  industrial  topics.  Channing's  text^ 
shows  the  same  tendency  in  less  degree.  Other  books^  are  similar 
to  this  one  in  the  relatively  small  amount  of  space  devoted  to  his- 
tory other  than  political  and  military. 

A  comparison  of  the  history  texts  published  since  1910  with 
those  published  prior  to  that  date  clearly  reveals  the  larger  amount 
of  space  devoted  to  social  and  industrial  history.  The  older  books 
are  still  used  more  or  less  and  some  of  the  newer  books  and  recent 

'Thompson,  James  M.,  History  of  the  United  States:  Political,  Industrial,  Social,  1915. 
»  MussEY,  David  S.,  American  History,  1911. 

•  McLaughlin,  Andrew  C,  History  of  the  American  Nation,  1913,  revised  edition.  See  also  Read- 
ings in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation  by  the  same  author,  1914. 

*  Channing,  Edward,  A  Student's  History  of  the  United  States,  1913. 

»  MoNTGOiiERY,  D.  H.,  Tke  Student's  American  History,  1913.  Revised  edition.  James,  James  A., 
and  Sanford,  Albert  H.,  American  History,  1909. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  245 

revisions  of  others,  as  already  pointed  out,  still  stress  the  old  type 
of  material.  Some  of  the  books  which  stress  the  new  viewpoint 
most  are  of  very  recent  publication.  It  is  therefore  evident  that 
the  actual  change  in  the  teaching  of  history  is  not  as  radical  as  the 
latter  text  would  indicate.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  conditions 
are  changing  rapidly  and  that  changes  of  considerable  significance 
have  already  taken  place. 

Civics  as  well  as  history  has  been  undergoing  important  changes 
in  recent  years.  Dole's  American  Citizen,  published  in  the  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  was  the  pioneer  book  in  the  field 
of  what  is  usually  called  functional  civics  as  distinguished  from  the 
traditional  text  which  emphasized  governmental  forms  and  ma- 
chinery. This  book  has  already  been  discussed  in  Part  II.  Since 
its  publication,  authors  have  been  inclined  to  deplore  in  prefaces 
the  lack  of  emphasis  upon  the  functional  aspects  of  civics  and  then 
to  neglect  to  make  subject-matter  conform  to  the  demands  of  the 
functional  viewpoint. 

Changes  of  any  great  importance  in  the  character  of  subject- 
matter  are  very  recent.  One  of  the  textbooks  which  has  had  wide 
use  in  secondary  schools  is  Government  in  State  and  Nation  by  James 
and  Sanford^  published  in  1901.  This  book  places  the  emphasis 
upon  governmental  forms  and  machinery  and  is  fairly  representa- 
tive of  the  type  of  texts  used  almost  universally  until  after  1910. 
In  fact,  Ashley's  text''  published  that  year  contains  the  same 
emphasis.  Another  text'  by  Ashley  published  seven  years  later  is 
a  very  different  type  of  book  and  is  representative  of  the  new 
viewpoint  in  the  teaching  of  civics.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
topics  which  show  that  emphasis  is  being  placed  upon  the  functional 
aspects  of  the  subject:  "Individual  Needs  and  Civic  Relations," 
"Individual  Needs  and  Public  Needs,"  "Childhood  Rights  of  Life 
and  Health,"  "Beginning  of  Civic  Training  in  the  Home,"  "Train- 
ing Citizens  in  the  School,"  "Degree  of  Self-Government  in  Dif- 
ferent Schools,"  "The  Citizen  in  Business." 

Another  text  which  gives  some  recognition  to  the  newer  type 
of  material  is  a  book  by  Guitteau.^  Some  of  the  topics  treated  are 
as  follows:  "Important  Aids  to  the  Public  Health,"  "Public  Parks 
and  Playgrounds,"  "Public  Charities,"  "Why  Government  Aids 

1  James,  J.  A.,  and  Sanford,  A.  H.,  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  1910, 

'  Ashley,  Roscoe  L.,  American  Government  for  Use  in  Secondary  Schools,  1910. 

•  Ashley,  Roscoe  L.,  The  New  Civics,  1917. 

*  GuiTTEAU,  William  B.,  Preparation  for  Citizenship,  1914. 


246  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Agriculture,"  "Work  of  the  National  Government  in  Improvement 
of  Highways." 

A  characterization  of  the  two  types  of  texts,  the  old  and  the 
new,  is  found  in  the  preface  of  Beard's  book^  published  in  1914. 

An  examination  of  the  collection  in  the  Library  of  Congress  which  mentions 
all  of  the  most  recent  books  in  civics  fall  into  two  parts,  those  which  are  formal 
and  legal  and  those  which  are  sociological  in  character. 

An  examination  of  published  lists  of  texts  shows  that  most  of  the 
texts  in  use  belong  to  the  class  called  "formal  and  legal."  The 
newer  texts,  however,  now  coming  into  use  indicate  that  radical 
changes  are  taking  place  in  the  character  of  civic  instruction. 

These  new  texts  in  history  and  civics  do  not  furnish  all  the 
evidence  of  changes  going  on  in  the  social  studies.  The  most 
striking  evidence,  perhaps,  is  found  in  a  type  of  text  that  represents 
not  only  marked  changes  in  the  character  of  subject-matter  but  a 
new  plan  of  organization  as  well.  Two  of  these*  will  be  used  as 
illustration  of  the  new  movement.     Towne  says  in  his  preface: 

The  work  is  intended  primarily  for  beginners  in  the  field  of  social  studies — 

for  those  who  may  desire  a  better  understanding  of  social  questions 

This,  then,  has  been  the  aim:  to  bring  before  students  of  social  problems  these 
facts  regarding  present  day  conditions;  to  indicate  certain  weaknesses  in  our  own 
social  order;  to  show  what  has  been  done  and  is  being  done  toward  the  elimination 
of  these  weaknesses;  and  to  impress  upon  these  students  through  the  presentation 
of  such  facts,  the  possibilities  of  wise,  sane,  constructive  social  action. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  chapter  titles  and  indicate  the  general 
character  of  subject  matter:  "Influence  of  Natural  Conditions  on 
Economic  and  Social  Development,"  "Child  Labor,"  "Women  and 
Industry,"  "Unemployment,"  "The  Blind  and  the  Deaf,"  "Crime 
and  Punishment,"  "The  Liquor  Problem,"  "Conservation  of 
Natural  Resources,"  "Conservation  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life," 
"Conservation  of  Human  Life." 

The  other  book  is  similar  in  its  purpose  but  differs  considerably 
in  character  of  subject-matter  and  even  more  in  method  of  treat- 
ment.    The  authors  have  the  following  to  say  in  the  preface: 

This  book  has  grown  out  of  an  attempt  to  socialize  one  phase  of  secondary 
education  and  to  bring  it  into  harmony  with  present  day  demands.  It  is  designed 
to  meet  the  needs  of  an  elementary  course  in  the  study  of  society — especially  of 
American  society.     A  conscious  attempt  has  been  made  to  emphasize  the  social 

»  Beard.  Charles  A., and  Beard,  Mary  R.,  American  Cilizenship,  1914. 

'Towne,  Ezra  T.,  A  Study  oj  Present  Day  Social  Conditions,  1916,  and  Burch,  Henry  R.,and 
Patterson,  S.  H.,  American  Social  Problems,  1918. 


CHANGES  IN  SUBJECT-MATTER  247 

aspect  of  American  life,  rather  than  the  political  or  economic.  Although  three 
phases  naturally  overlap  and  are  in  many  cases  inseparably  interwoven,  the  main 

stress  has  always  been  placed  on  the  social  point  of  view The  method  of 

treatment  has  been  evolutionary  and  historical  because  growth  and  development 
is  the  very  essence  of  social  institutions.  It  is  also  hoped  that  this  method  of 
approach  and  the  material  presented  will  help  meet  the  demand  for  what  has 
been  termed  "socialized  history." 

Some  of  the  chapter  titles  are  as  follows:  "The  Life  of  the  Past" 
(evolution),  "The  Past  and  the  Present"  (tradition  and  social 
survivals),  "The  Influence  of  Environment,"  "History  of  the 
Family,"  "The  Problem  of  Immigration,"  "The  American  Race 
Problem,"  "Social  Effects  of  Industry,"  "The  Problem  of  Crime," 
"The  Problem  of  Prohibition,"  "Evolution  of  the  Schools,"  "Moral 
Progress." 

It  is  evident  that  radical  changes  in  the  character  of  subject- 
matter  and  its  organization  are  well  under  way.  The  revision  of 
texts  in  history,  dealing  with  the  general  field,  the  use  in  many 
schools  of  industrial  and  commercial  histories  and  the  new  type 
of  civics  bear  abundant  evidence  of  the  change  going  on.  Added 
to  this  is  the  evidence  of  the  movement  to  reorganize  the  material 
something  after  the  plan  already  referred  to  in  connection  with 
mathematics,  English,  and  science.  In  the  field  of  social  studies 
as  well  as  in  these  other  fields,  old  divisions  are  being  ignored  and 
a  new  era  in  secondary  education  is  being  ushered  in.  Whether 
this  movement  in  its  present  form  is  permanent  is  perhaps  too  early 
to  say,  but  that  we  shall  ever  return  to  the  old,  hard  and  fast  plan 
of  organization  is  extremely  doubtful. 

The  subject-matter  of  the  foreign  languages  has  apparently 
been  affected  very  little  by  the  influences  which  have  caused  im- 
portant changes  in  other  subjects.  Modern  language,  except  for 
the  increased  attention  being  given  to  Spanish,  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  appreciably  influenced.  Latin,  so  far  as  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  years  are  concerned,  remains  unchanged.  Caesar, 
Cicero,  and  Virgil  continue  to  constitute  the  work  of  these  years. 
There  is  some  evidence^  of  an  attempt  to  revise  the  work  of  the 
first  year  but  as  long  as  Caesar  continues  to  constitute  wholly  or 
chiefly  the  work  of  the  second  year,  the  subject-matter  of  the  first 
year  will  have  to  be  propaedeutic  to  this  work.^ 

>  Scott,  Harry  F.,  First  Latin  Book  for  Junior  High  Schools,  1918. 

'Pearson.  Henry  C,  Essentials  of  Latin,  1905.  Revised  1911,  1912,  1915.  Also  Smith,  M.  L., 
Latin  Lessons,  1913. 


248  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

The  subject-matter  of  the  vocational  subjects  has  already  been 
discussed  in  part  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  other  fields. 
The  influence  of  the  vocational  movement  upon  mathematics, 
English,  science,  and  the  social  studies  was  there  pointed  out.  The 
character  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  more  strictly  vocational 
subjects  is  rather  clearly  revealed  by  the  titles  of  the  various  sub- 
jects. The  most  of  these  have  come  into  the  curriculum  so  recently 
that  no  comparative  study  in  development  can  be  made  at  this 
time. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SUMMARY 

The  forty  years  included  in  the  study  covered  by  Parts  I  and  II 
have  been  grouped  into  periods  of  five  years  each  for  convenience 
in  determining  conditions  and  in  noting  any  changes  that  should 
take  place  from  time  to  time.  In  this  summary  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  treat  each  of  these  periods  separately  since  no  changes 
of  importance  occurred  in  some  of  them.  For  this  reason,  except 
in  cases  where  the  recognition  of  these  arbitrary  groupings  aid  in 
interpretations,  they  will  be  ignored. 

The  year  1860  fairly  approximates  the  beginning  of  the  wide- 
spread movement  in  the  North  Central  states  to  establish  public 
secondary  schools.  Comparison  of  earlier  and  later  courses  show 
that  the  schools  included  therein  attempted  to  fulfil  the  purpose  of 
the  Boston  school,  that  of  fitting  for  life.  It  is  clear  that  four  of 
them  did  not  undertake  to  prepare  for  higher  institutions  because 
of  the  absence  of  foreign  languages.  Four-fifths  of  the  schools 
undertook  to  perform  both  functions,  and  this  type  of  high  school 
became  the  prevailing  type.  Along  these  two  lines  high-school 
curricula  developed. 

The  line  was  not  clearly  drawn  for  a  considerable  time  between 
the  work  of  high  schools  and  that  of  higher  institutions.  This  is 
shown  by  the  wide  range  of  subjects  offered  particularly  in  mathe- 
matics, foreign  language,  and  the  miscellaneous  subjects.  It  was 
probably  the  conscious  purpose  of  some  of  these  early  high  schools 
to  enter  the  field  of  higher  education,  following  in  this  respect  the 
schools  of  Boston,  Lowell,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore. 

One  of  the  changes  taking  place  in  organization  of  curricula  is 
manifested  by  a  change  in  terminology,  the  word  "Department" 
being  superseded  by  the  word  "Course."  "Classical  department" 
and  "English  department"  gave  way  to  "Classical  Course"  and 
"English  Course"  and  these  in  turn  ceased  to  be  used  exclusively 
to  designate  courses  intended  to  prepare  for  higher  institutions  and 
those  to  prepare  for  life.  This  tendency  is  noticeable  at  the  very 
beginning  of  our  study  and  courses  and  titles  multiply  as  time  goes 
on.  The  extent  to  which  this  practice  was  carried  on  means  that 
the  schools  were  no  longer  attempting  to  provide  two  types  of 

249 


250  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

education  but  several  types.  Theoretically,  the  purpose  was  to 
furnish  education  that  would  meet  the  needs  of  the  various  classes 
of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  schools.  This  practice  grew  in  favor  after 
1880  and  was  a  forerunner  of  the  more  specific  differentiation  in 
curricula  receiving  so  much  attention  at  the  present  time. 

Another  change  which  took  place  was  the  disappearance  or 
decline  in  importance  of  a  number  of  subjects  taught  in  the  earlier 
schools.  Mental  philosophy,  moral  philosophy,  logic,  evidences  of 
Christianity,  biblical  antiquities,  classical  antiquities,  and  ancient 
geography  had  all  disappeared  by  1890  except  the  first  two  named, 
and  they  were  found  in  only  one  school  thereafter.  The  higher 
mathematics,  except  trigonometry,  ceased  to  be  offered  after  1885, 
and  that  subject  declined  in  importance  after  1880.  In  science, 
astronomy  and  geology,  ranking  with  botany  in  1860,  declined  after 
1875  and  were  offered  in  approximately  only  one-fourth  of  the 
schools  at  the  close.  It  will  be  seen  that,  roughly  speaking,  1880' 
marks  the  disappearance  or  decline  of  those  subjects  which  occupied 
an  important  place  in  the  earlier  curricula. 

Subjects  from  a  new  field  did  not  take  the  place  of  these  dis- 
continued and  declining  subjects.  Less  time  was  not  devoted  to 
either  mathemathics  or  science,  but  more  time  was  given  to  the 
subjects  remaining.  Also  more  time  was  given  to  both  English 
and  the  social  studies.  The  year  1880  marks  the  beginning  of 
increase  of  time  devoted  to  these  fields.  The  gain  in  each  was 
approximately  one  year. 

The  increasing  tendency  to  greater  uniformity  in  curricula  from 
the  standpoint  of  time  devoted  to  both  subjects  and  fields  was 
another  change  which  took  place.  This  was  neither  sudden  nor 
marked.  No  single  date  or  period  can  be  designated  as  marking 
the  transition.  A  comparison  of  Tables  A  and  H  and  also  Tables 
XI  and  XVIII  makes  it  clear  that  greater  uniformity  prevailed  at 
the  close. 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  terminology  is  very  pronounced,  par- 
ticularly in  the  earlier  periods.  This  is  especially  true  in  English 
and  the  social  studies  and  continued,  although  in  less  degree,  to 
the  close.  In  mathematics,  all  terms  disappear  about  1880  except 
those  now  used  to  designate  high-school  mathematics.  The  general 
term  "English,"  used  to  designate  all  the  subjects  in  that  field, 
came  into  use  about  1880  and  was  employed  in  about  25  per 
cent  of  the  schools  at   the  close.     United   States  Constitution, 


SUMMARY  251 

science  of  government,  and  civil  government  tended  to  give  way 
to  the  term  "civics."  General  history  became  the  term  in  more 
general  use  to  take  the  place  of  several  terms  used  in  the  earlier 
periods.  In  science,  the  term  "natural  history"  ceased  to  be  used 
to  any  considerable  extent  after  1875  and  biology  came  in  about 
1880.  Specific  terms  such  as  meteorology,  mineralogy,  electricity, 
and  mechanics  had  practically  disappeared  by  1880.  The  term 
"natural  philosophy"  gradually  gave  way  to  that  of  "physics"  and 
the  latter  was  used  by  a  majority  of  the  schools  at  the  close. 

The  beginning  of  both  commercial  and  industrial  education  is 
found  in  the  closing  years  of  the  century.  One  commercial  subject, 
bookkeeping,  was  offered  from  the  first,  but  it  was  practically  the 
only  one  in  its  field  until  1890.  An  occasional  school  offered  com- 
mercial law  and  commercial  arithmetic,  but  it  is  evident  that  no 
serious  attention  was  given  to  commercial  education  previous  to 
that  date  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  few  schools  offered  so-called 
commercial  courses.  That  date,  however,  marks  the  beginning  of 
the  movement  that  resulted  in  commercial  courses  in  fact  and  later 
in  commercial  high  schools.  The  industrial  courses  make  their 
first  appearance  about  1885,  and  this  also  was  the  beginning  of 
another  important  movement  in  secondary  education.  The 
development  of  both  of  these  movements,  however,  belongs  to  the 
present  century. 

The  two  purposes  of  the  high  school,  that  of  preparing  for  college 
and  fitting  for  life,  continue  evident  in  the  courses  of  study.  The 
courses  intended  to  prepare  for  higher  institutions  undergo  rather 
marked  changes.^  Greek  ceases  to  be  a  constant  and  other  sub- 
jects are  added,  including  English,  science,  and  the  social  studies. 
These  changes  were  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  changes  in  entrance 
requirements  and  in  part  to  an  attempt  to  broaden  the  type  of 
education  and  thus  fulfil,  in  some  degree,  both  aims  of  the  high 
school. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,*  the  other  type  of  courses  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  controlled  either  by  well-defined  educational  ideals  or 
specific  social  aims.  Judging  from  the  titles  of  courses,'  it  seems  to 
have  been  assumed  that  the  various  fields  furnished  real  bases  for 
differences  in  educational  and  social  values,  but  no  criteria  except 

I  Cf.  courses  of  study,  pp.  20-42. 
«  Cf .  pp.  SO  ff. 
»  Cf .  Table  I. 


252  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

of  the  most  generalized  sort  are  discoverable.  When  these  courses 
are  examined  in  detail,  it  is  found  that  the  descriptive  titles  are  not 
safe  guides  in  determining  emphases  in  subjects  or  the  character  of 
organization.  Except  for  the  few  normal,  commercial,  and  manual 
training  courses,  differentiation  in  courses  was  not  accompanied 
by  equal  differentiation  in  character  of  education  provided. 

The  majority  of  schools  furnishing  data  provided  four-year 
courses.  Some  of  the  early  ones  were  not  given  in  sufficient  detail 
to  determine  the  length,  and  these  cannot  be  included  in  the  sum- 
maries. Tables  A  to  H,  Appendix,  show  the  number  of  courses  of 
four,  three,  two,  and  one  year  respectively.  These  make  clear 
that  four-year  courses  were  in  the  majority  throughout  the  forty 
years,  and  after  1885  the  ratio  is  about  three  to  one  in  favor  of  the 
four-year  course.  The  study  made  in  1894  by  Superintendent 
W.  F.  Cramer  of  more  than  one  hundred  courses  offered  in  Iowa 
high  schools  shows  about  the  same  proportion  of  four-year  courses.^ 

It  should  be  said,  however,  that  in  the  present  study  as  well  as 
in  that  made  by  Mr.  Cramer,  many  of  the  smaller  schools  are  not 
included  simply  because  data  are  not  obtainable.  This  class  of 
schools  is  not  so  apt  to  publish  courses  and  the  present  study  has 
revealed  that  in  many  schools  these  documents  are  not  preserved 
even  if  published.  It  needs  to  be  said,  therefore,  that  it  is  not 
probable  that  three-fourths  of  the  high  schools  either  in  Iowa  or  in 
the  North  Central  states  offered  four-year  courses.  The  conclu- 
sion is  nevertheless  justified  that  four  years  was  regarded,  except 
in  the  early  years  of  our  study,  as  the  standard  high-school  course. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  order  in  which  subjects  appear  in  cur- 
ricula, it  was  shown  that  considerable  confusion  prevailed.  Arith- 
metic was  taught  either  alone  or  simultaneously  with  algebra  in  the 
first  year.  Frequent  exceptions  to  this,  however,  are  found. 
Algebra  always  preceded  geometry.^  Grammar  was  usually  a 
first-year  subject,  sometimes  being  offered  as  a  review  subject  in 
the  last  year.  Rhetoric  was  a  middle-course  subject — second  or 
third  year — and  literature  was  confined  largely  to  the  third  and 
fourth  years. 

In  science,  physiology  and  physical  geography  are  found  almost 
exclusively  in  the  first  two  years,  and  physics,  chemistry,  geology, 
and  astronomy  in  the  last  two.     Botany  and  zoology  are  more  often 

1  Pamphlet  published  by  Northeastern  Iowa  Teachers  Association,  1894. 

'  In  some  cases  a  third  semester  of  algebra  was  offered  following  plane  geometry. 


SUMMARY  253 

found  in  the  first  two  years,  but  the  tendency  toward  distributing 
them  over  the  entire  course  is  more  pronounced  than  in  the  other 
sciences.  This  is  particularly  true  of  zoology.  Lack  of  correla- 
tion of  science  subjects,  except  physics  and  chemistry,  is  evident. 

United  States  history  was  usually  a  first-year  subject  and 
political  economy  a  last  year.  European  history  was  on  the  whole 
a  middle-course  subject  and  civics  tended  toward  distribution  over 
the  entire  course.  Toward  the  close  the  latter  subject  is  found 
more  frequently  than  formerly  in  the  first  year,  and  European  his- 
tory shifts  somewhat  to  this  year.  There  is  evident  lack  of  sequence 
of  courses  in  this  field.  A  narrow  range  of  commercial  subjects 
appears  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  curricula  and  the  miscellaneous 
subjects  in  the  later  ones. 

The  range  of  subjects  offered  is  shown  in  Tables  II-IX.  In 
mathematics  and  the  miscellaneous  subjects,  the  range  was  wide 
in  the  earlier  years.  After  1880,  the  latter  subjects  practically 
disappear  as  do  also  the  higher  mathematical  subjects,  except 
trigonometry  which  declines  in  importance.  Lack  of  uniformity 
in  terminology  in  English  and  the  social  studies  accounts  for  the 
apparent  wide  range  of  subjects  in  these  fields.  The  fact  is  that 
the  range  was  comparatively  narrow  prior  to  1880. 

In  science  a  wide  range  was  offered  throughout  the  entire  period 
with  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  number  of  subjects  toward  the  close 
without  diminution  of  time  devoted  to  the  field. 

Foreign  language  included  Latin,  Greek,  German,  French,  and 
Spanish,  the  latter  being  practically  negligible.  Latin  leads  both 
in  number  of  schools  offering  the  subject  and  in  time  devoted  to  it. 
German  stands  next  to  Latin  in  importance. 

The  range  of  commercial  subjects  was  very  narrow,  an  occa- 
sional school  near  the  close  devoting  considerable  time  to  this 
field.  The  wide  range  of  miscellaneous  subjects  offered  in  1860 
largely  disappears  after  1880,  and  near  the  close  industrial  subjects 
begin  to  appear  in  a  few  schools. 

Table  X  indicates  that  mathematics,  English,  and  science  were 
constants  and  the  social  studies  belong  to  this  group  after  1870. 
Strictly  speaking  no  subject  was  a  constant  although  algebra, 
geometry,  physics,  and  literature,  after  1885,  were  practically  so. 
Of  the  variables  Latin,  physiology,  botany,  physical  geography,  and 
rhetoric  represent  the  highest  percentages  of  frequency.  The 
degree  of  variability  indicated  in  Table  X  is  accounted  for  in  two 


254  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

ways:  first,  all  the  schools  do  not  appear  in  all  the  tables/  and 
secondly,  subjects  that  were  offered  by  a  school  at  one  time  would 
be  omitted  at  another.^ 

The  pronounced  lack  of  uniformity  in  curricula  from  the  stand- 
point of  time  devoted  to  fields  and  subjects  is  shown  in  Tables 
XI-XVIII,  XIX,  and  XX-XXVII.  Lack  of  standardization  is 
very  evident  in  all  the  fields  and  in  many  of  the  subjects.  In  a 
group  of  schools  offering  English  there  were  ten  different  units  of 
time  devoted  to  the  field,  and  in  science,  fourteen  schools  repre- 
sented nine  different  units  of  time.  Extreme  differences  between 
individual  schools  is  shown  in  the  maxima  and  minima  of  the 
tables.  The  increasing  tendency  toward  uniformity  is  shown  by 
comparing  Tables  XI  and  XVIII. 

The  chief  difference  between  curricula  of  large  and  small 
schools  was  that  the  former  offered  a  wider  range  of  subjects  in  the 
fields  offered  by  practically  all  the  schools.  Trigonometry  and 
other  higher  mathematical  subjects,  in  the  earlier  years,  belonged 
chiefly  to  the  curricula  of  the  larger  schools.  These  schools  also 
offered  English,  particularly  literature,  in  the  earlier  years,  and  the 
modern  languages  were  less  frequently  offered  by  the  smaller 
schools.  This  was  especially  true  of  French.  In  science,  chemis- 
try and  geology  were  the  subjects  more  frequently  provided  by  the 
larger  schools.  The  larger  schools  were  not  distinguished  by 
offering  commercial  and  industrial  subjects  until  near  the  close  of 
the  century. 

Aside  from  the  difference  between  city  and  large  town  schools, 
and  small  town  schools,  there  is  no  evidence  that  locality  had  any 
appreciable  influence  upon  curricula.  It  is  true  that  some  subjects 
received  more  emphasis  in  one  state  than  in  another,  but  differences 
in  this  regard  were  quite  as  great  between  schools  of  the  same  state 
as  between  schools  located  in  different  states. 

Individual  differences  in  schools  from  the  standpoint  of  subjects 
offered  regardless  of  location  were  very  pronounced  as  shown  in 
the  Appendix,  Tables  A-H.  A  greater  degree  of  similarity  pre- 
vailed among  small  schools  than  large  ones.  This  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  they  offered  a  narrower  range  of  subjects  and  provided 
less  electives.  The  constants  common  to  both  large  and  small 
schools  would  result  in  similarity  of  curricula  while  the  variables 

1  Cf.  Appendix,  Table  A-H. 

'  Examples  as  to  arithmetic  and  grammar  given  in  footnotes,  p.  76. 


SUMMARY  2SS 

offered  in  larger  number  by  the  larger  schools  caused  greater  varia- 
tion among  the  schools. 

Regarded  from  the  standpoint  of  time  devoted  to  fields  and 
subjects,  the  individual  differences  are  also  very  pronounced. 
Tables  XI-XVIII,  XIX,  and  XX-XXVIII  show  this  in  detail. 
Comparisons  of  curricula,  pp.  20-42,  make  this  clear  in  regard  to 
particular  schools. 

In  some  fields  changes  in  the  character  of  subject-matter  is 
practically  negligible.  Mathematics  and  foreign  language  are 
examples.  English,  particularly  literature,  some  of  the  sciences, 
and  the  social  studies  furnish  examples  in  varying  degrees  of 
importance. 

The  subject-matter  of  grammar  did  not  differ  essentially  in 
1900  from  what  it  was  in  1860.  Literature  on  the  contrary  passed 
through  three  rather  distinct  stages  in  its  development.  The  first 
was  characterized  by  a  wide  range  of  short  selections.  The  second 
was  marked  by  stress  placed  upon  the  history  of  literature  and 
more  particularly  by  the  amount  of  attention  devoted  to  biog- 
raphies of  authors.  The  more  general  use  of  classics  which  marks 
the  third  stage  began  about  1885.  The  classics  were  grouped  into 
two  classes — one  for  critical  study  and  the  other  for  general  reading. 

The  subject-matter  of  rhetoric  in  the  earlier  years  was  charac- 
terized by  emphasis  on  the  logical  aspect  of  the  subject.  Later  the 
attempt  to  make  the  subject  function  in  connection  with  the  correct 
use  of  English  is  evident.  Much  attention  is  devoted  to  the  correc- 
tion of  "bad"  English,  i.e.,  to  "grammatical  and  idiomatic  expres- 
sions." About  1895  one  witnesses  a  further  shift  in  the  same 
direction,  viz.,  increased  emphasis  upon  the  relation  of  the  subject 
to  composition. 

Composition  received  apparently  little  attention  in  the  early 
years  of  the  period  under  discussion.  This  has  been  pointed  out 
in  Part  I.  The  character  of  the  subject-matter  was  determined 
largely  in  the  various  stages  of  its  development  by  its  relation  to  the 
other  English  subjects.  The  first  stage  is  marked  by  the  stress 
placed  upon  grammatical  forms.  Composition  exercises  were  used 
to  secure  drill  in  the  use  of  these  forms.  Drill  on  rhetorical  forms 
constituted  the  emphasis  in  the  second  stage.  The  third  stage  is 
characterized  by  the  use  of  literature  as  a  source  of  material. 

The  biological  subjects,  particularly  botany,  witnessed  impor- 
tant changes  in  subject-matter.     The  religious  point  of  view  is 


256  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

somewhat  in  evidence  early  in  the  period.  In  the  case  of  botany, 
the  premedical  standpoint  is  also  noticeable.  Both  this  subject 
and  zoology  later  received  the  anatomical  emphasis  to  the  exclusion 
practically  of  other  material.  Near  the  close  of  the  period  the  mor- 
phological aspects  of  the  subjects  predominated.  The  subject- 
matter  of  physiology  was  almost  wholly  anatomy,  the  shift  of 
attention  to  hygienic  material  becoming  somewhat  noticeable  near 
the  close  of  the  century. 

Physics  and  chemistry  followed  practically  the  same  lines  of 
development.  The  "science  of  common  things"  was  displaced  by 
formal  types  of  subject-matter.  The  development  of  laboratory 
work  seems  to  have  been  influential  in  bringing  about  this  change. 
The  earth  sciences  as  well  as  the  biological  were  influenced  by  the 
evolutionary  theory,  and  changes  in  the  character  of  subject-matter 
are  readily  apparent.  The  economic  phases  of  the  subjects  began 
to  receive  some  attention  in  the  very  last  years  of  the  period. 
Astronomy  steadily  declined  in  importance  after  1880  and  no 
change  of  importance  occurred  in  subject-matter. 

European  history  was  largely  ancient  history  in  the  early  years 
and  this  period  continued  to  receive  the  emphasis  of  attention  to 
the  close.  The  older  texts  were  devoted  quite  exclusively  to 
political  and  military  history.  After  1875  a  tendency  is  noticeable 
to  include  some  material  dealing  with  social  life.  The  emphasis, 
however,  upon  the  political  and  military  aspects  of  the  subjects 
continued  to  prevail.  The  stress  on  United  States  history  was  the 
same  as  that  on  European  history  with  respect  to  political  and 
military  events.  The  earlier  texts  show  this  conclusively.  Later 
the  Barnes  and  Montgomery  texts  devote  some  attention  to  the 
affairs  of  social  life. 

Civics  passed  through  three  fairly  well-defined  periods.  The 
early  texts  were  little  more  than  manuals  of  constitutions.  This 
material  continued  to  be  used  in  the  second  period,  but  more  or  less 
statutory  material  was  introduced  and  governmental  machinery 
was  considered  in  considerable  detail.  The  third  period  is  marked 
by  a  tendency  to  stress  the  functions  of  government.  The  old 
points  of  view,  however,  continued  to  dominate  in  the  teaching  of 
the  subject  to  the  close  of  the  century.  The  teaching  of  political 
economy  falls  roughly  into  two  periods.  In  the  first  the  subject- 
matter  dealt  with  principles  or  the  philosophical  aspects  of  the 
subject.     The  relation  of  the  subject  to  moral  philosophy  is  stressed. 


SUMMARY  257 

The  second  period  is  characterized  by  a  shift  of  emphasis  to  the 
practical  application  of  principles.  These  principles  also  change  in 
that  they  are  more  or  less  completely  derived  from  existing  economic 
conditions. 

The  vocational  subjects  were  just  beginning  to  receive  serious 
attention  at  the  close  of  the  century  and  the  development  of  subject- 
matter  was  not  important. 

Important  changes  have  taken  place  in  high-school  education 
isince  1900  and  more  particularly  since  1910.  The  scope  of  the 
work  has  been  greatly  increased  especially  since  the  latter  date. 
This  has  been  accomplished  in  two  ways:  (1)  by  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  commercial  and  industrial  subjects  and  in  the  time 
devoted  to  these  subjects;  (2)  by  a  reorganization  which  results  in 
two  years  being  added  to  the  period  devoted  to  secondary  educa- 
tion in  those  schools  in  which  a  junior  high  school  is  maintained, 
and  four  years  in  case  of  the  junior  college.  The  former  does  not 
mean  in  many  cases  an  actual  increase  of  two  years  of  secondary 
work  since  elementary  subjects  are  still  included  in  the  curricula. 
The  movement  does  represent,  however,  a  well-developed  tendency 
to  limit  the  work  of  the  elementary  school  to  six  years  and  to  extend 
the  work  of  the  secondary  school  downward  two  years. 

The  organization  of  curricula  has  also  witnessed  marked  changes. 
The  two  purposes  of  the  high  school — fitting  for  college  and  fitting 
for  life — are  still  maintained,  but  the  latter  functions  much  more 
definitely  than  it  did  previous  to  1900.  Differentiation  in  college- 
preparatory  curricula  has  also  developed  considerably.  The  so- 
called  "Regular"  or  "General"  courses,  and  titles  derived  from  the 
traditional  fields  such  as  "English,"  "science,"  "Latin"  and  the 
like,  have  decreased  in  number.  In  place  of  these  titles  we  find 
such  as  the  following:  "Agricultural,"  "Commercial  Course  for 
Boys,"  "Commercial  Course  for  Girls,"  "Domestic  Science,"  "Fine 
Arts,"  and  "Stenography."  This  attempt  to  differentiate  curricula 
to  meet  specific  vocational  needs  began  prior  to  1900  but  the 
development  of  the  practice  has  taken  place  largely  since  1910. 

The  range  of  subjects  has  greatly  increased  since  1900  and  more 
especially  since  1910,  as  shown  by  a  comparison  of  Tables  IX, 
XXIX,  and  XXX.  This  increase  has  taken  place  chiefly  in  the 
general  field  of  vocational  subjects. 

The  matter  of  constants  and  variables  is  treated  in  Table  XXXI 
and  is  discussed  in  the  pages  immediately  following.     Not  much 


258  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

change  has  occurred  in  practice  as  related  to  the  traditional  subjects 
except  as  brought  about  by  reorganizations  of  subject-matter. 
For  example  the  introduction  of  "general"  science  has  resulted 
apparently  in  a  decline  in  importance  of  some  of  the  science  sub- 
jects. The  rapid  increase  in  the  teaching  of  vocational  subjects  is 
clearly  shown. 

The  practice  of  requiring  all  pupils  to  take  the  same  subjects 
has  rapidly  declined.  English  is  the  only  field  required  of  all 
students  during  the  period  1915-18.  Mathematics  stands  next 
with  approximately  80  per  cent  of  the  schools  requiring  algebra  and 
60  per  cent  geometry.  The  social  studies  stand  third  with  60  per 
cent,  American  history  leading  with  40  per  cent.  About  50  per  cent 
require  science,  physics  being  specified  in  25  per  cent  of  the  schools. 
Few  schools  require  foreign  language  and  none  specify  commercial 
subjects  as  a  requirement.  Approximately  10  per  cent  require 
something  in  the  field  of  the  fine  and  practical  arts. 

The  changes  that  have  been  pointed  out  are  important,  but  the 
most  significant  readjustments  relate  to  the  character  of  subject- 
matter  and  its  organization.  Subject-matter  has  been  differentiated 
in  the  commercial  field  and  in  the  fine  and  practical  arts.  New 
types  of  material  have  been  introduced  into  the  traditional  sub- 
jects. This  latter  change  has  been  radical  particularly  in  the 
sciences  and  the  social  studies,  and  the  influence  has  been  felt, 
though  less  marked,  in  English.  The  subject-matter  of  mathe- 
matics has  not  apparently  undergone  any  important  change  and 
the  same  is  true  of  foreign  language. 

The  tendency  to  get  away  from  the  traditional  organization  of 
subject-matter  is  evident.  Unified  mathematics  and  general 
science  are  examples  of  this,  the  development  of  the  latter  subject 
being  particularly  significant.  English  furnishes  another  example. 
This  is  shown  not  only  by  the  titles  of  textbooks  and  the  point  of 
view  of  authors  revealed  in  prefaces,  but  also  by  the  emphases 
employed  and  the  organization  of  the  subject-matter  itself.  The 
tendency  to  disregard  the  traditional  types  of  organization  and  to 
unify  subject-matter  is  also  seen  in  the  social  studies.  Courses  in 
social  problems  are  being  introduced  and  textbooks  having  this 
type  of  organization  are  coming  into  use. 

The  last  decade,  roughly  speaking,  has  witnessed  the  develop- 
ment of  these  tendencies  both  as  to  the  character  of  subject-matter 
and  its  organization.     The  preceding  decade,  and,  to  much  less 


SUMMARY  259 

extent,  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  present  evidence  of 
important  impending  changes.  The  actual  readjustments,  how- 
ever, particularly  in  subject-matter  and  its  organization  have  taken 
place  chiefly  since  1910.  There  seems  to  be  abundant  evidence 
that  this  movement  to  extend  the  scope  of  secondary  education 
and  to  make  it  more  vital  is  destined  to  continue  until  permanent 
readjustments  shall  have  been  made. 


APPENDIX 

The  following  tables  show  the  names  of  the  towns  and  cities, 
the  length  in  years  of  the  courses,  and  the  date  of  each.  The 
figures  indicate  the  time  in  years  devoted  to  the  several  subjects 
and  fields. 


261 


CQ 


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Monroe,  Michigan 

Mt.  Pleasant,  Iowa 

Racine,  Wisconsin 

Rock  Island,  Illinois 

Ypsilanti,  Michigan 

262 


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:k  ::s;r  :^s;:s;j^iRMiK:R  :  : 

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:r  :;i^:s 

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:^  :^ 

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jC80I09£) 

:«:s:s-H  ; 

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M^^«^ 

^^^iS^     jefJcR^^MiS?    ;>*** 

soisXqj 

::::::::::  :^  ::  : 

Xqdosojiqj 

^^  ;s^  K  ;?!^^  _^  ^  ;^:s:s;i;;r  « :s:s  H « 

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1 

Adrian,  Michigan 

Battle  Creek,  Michigan 

Charlotte,  Michigan 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Grand  Rapids,  Michigan 

Lacon,  Illinois 

Monroe,  Michigan 

Racine,  Wisconsin.^ 

Ypsilanti,  Michigan 

263 


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Ann  Arbor,  Michigan 

Burlington,  Iowa 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Cincinnati.  Ohio 

Dubuque,  Iowa .  _. 

Grand  Rapids,  Michigan 

Iiacon,  Illinois 

Monroe,  Michigan 

Racine,  Wisconsin.^ 

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«^^^^^«^^  :^^  :  ;is^^;s  > 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Authorities  and  Sources 
I 

Aurner,  Clarence  Ray.  History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  1915.  Chapters  xix-xxii. 
A  good  account  of  secondary  education  in  Iowa.  Curricula  in  considerable 
detail. 

Barnard,  Henry.  American  Journal  of  Education,  XIX  (1870),  465-576.  Con- 
tains curricula,  both  elementary  and  secondary,  for  the  late  60's. 

Bennett,  Charles  E.,  and  Bristol,  George  P.  The  Teaching  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  the  Secondary  School,  1899,  pp.  50-54,  111-24.     Some  historical  material. 

Education  in  Indiana.     Information  concerning  the  establishment  of  high  schools. 

Bourne,  Henry  E.  The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics,  1912.  Chapter  iv. 
General  treatment  of  the  development  of  subject-matter. 

Brown,  Elmer  E.  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools:  An  Account  of  the  Develop- 
ment of  Secondary  Education  in  the  United  States,  1902.  Chapter  xiv. 
Good  account  of  the  early  high  schools. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.,  Baker,  F.  T.,  and  Scott,  F.  N.  The  Teaching  of  English  in 
the  Elementary  and  the  Secondary  School,  1903.  Chapter  iv.  Discussion  of 
the  development  of  subject-matter  in  secondary  English. 

Dexter,  Edwin  G.  A  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States,  1904.  Chapter 
xii.     A  brief  treatment  of  secondary  education. 

Handschin,  C.  H.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  United  States, 
1913.     Some  good  material  on  subject-matter. 

Mann,  C.  R.  The  Teaching  of  Physics,  1912.  Chapters  ii,  iii,  and  iv.  Some 
historical  material. 

Monroe,  Paul.  A  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  1911.  I,  92;  III,  51.  Brief  his- 
torical accounts  of  subject-matter. 

Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1886-87,  pp.  534^50, 
631-41;  1896-97,  II,  1886-94;  1916,  II,  447.  Good  material  dealing  with 
high-school  subjects  in  first  two  citations.  Statement  of  the  number  of 
secondary  schools,  public  and  private,  in  the  last  one. 

Smith,  David  E.  The  Teaching  of  Geometry,  1911.  Chapters  vi-vii.  Some 
discussion  of  the  development  of  subject-matter. 

Woodhull,  John  F.  "The  Teaching  of  Physical  Science,"  Teachers  College 
Record,  XI  (January,  1910),  5-26.  Good  historical  sketch  of  the  development 
of  subject-matter. 

II 
The  following  are  the  sources  for  data  used  in  Appendix,  Tables  A-J.    They 

contain  high-school  courses  of  study  and  are  valuable  in  furnishing  details  con- 
cerning the  subjects  offered.     Considerable    material    is    also    included    dealing 

with  subject-matter. 

Central  High  School,  Aberdeen,  South  Dakota:  Announcement  and  Course  of  Study, 
1915.     Leaflet. 

292 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  293 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools,  Aberdeen,  South  Dakota,  1891,  pp.  20-21. 

Manual  of  the  Aberdeen  {South  Dakota)  City  Schools,  1910-11,  pp.  27-38. 

Announcement  of  the  Public  Schools,  Addison,  Michigan,  1895-96,  p.  8. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Adel,  Iowa,  1896,  p.  16. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Adrian,  Missouri,  1896-97,  p.  15. 

Report  of  the  Officers  and  Pupils  of  the  Adrian,  Michigan,  Public  Schools,  1856-57, 

p.  34. 
Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  State  of  Michigan,  1875. 

Adrian,  p.  301.     Ann  Arbor,  p.  311. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Adrian,  Michigan,  1895,  p.  58. 
Course  of  Instruction  for  the  Akron,  Ohio,  High  School,  1917.     Leaflet. 
Course  of  Study  and  Manual  of  Instruction  for  the  Public  Schools  of  Akron,  Ohio, 

1908,  pp.  191-216. 
Public  School  Bulletin,  Albert  Lea,  Minnesota,  1916,  pp.  10-25. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  Alliance,  Nebraska, 

1890,  p.  14. 
American  Journal  of  Education,  XIX,  535-36. 
Catalog  of  the  Ann  Arbor  (Michigan)  High  School  for  the  Academic  Year,  1908-09, 

pp.  30-31. 
Catalog  of  the  Ann  Arbor  {Michigan)  High  School  for  the  Year  1915,  pp.  24-36. 
Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  State  of  Michigan,  1855- 

56-57.    Ann  Arbor.    Report  of  Union  Schools,  pp.  440-41. 
Annual  Catalog  District  Schools,  Appleton,  Wisconsin,  1891-92,  pp.  15-18. 
Annual  Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools,  Appleton,  Wisconsin,  1886-87,  pp.  17-19. 
Appleton  (Wisconsin)  Public  Schools:  Course  of  Study,  1911,  pp.  32-36. 
Ibid.,  1916,  pp.  38-43. 

Catalog  of  Public  Schools,  Appleton,  Wisconsin,  1897,  pp.  57-62. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Revised  Course  of  Sttidy,  Appleton,  Wisconsin,  1876, 

p.  18. 
Outline  of  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Ashland,  Nebraska,  1881, 

p.  8. 
Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Attica,  Indiana,  1897,  p.  64. 
Report  and  Manual  of  the  Public  Schools,  Attica,  Indiana,  1895,  p.  45. 
Manual  of  the  Public  Schools,  Auburn,  Indiana,  1894-95,  p.  9. 
Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  Auburn,  Indiana,  1882-83,  pp.  9-10. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Aurora,  Illinois,  1894,  pp.  25-26. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Baraboo,  Wisconsin,  1887,  p.  20. 
Report  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  State  of  Michigan  (Battle 

Creek),  1859,  p.  254. 
Bedford  (Indiana)  Graded  Schools,  1875,  p.  2. 
Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin  (Beloit), 

1869,  p.  104. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Graded  Course  of  Study,  Boone,  Iowa,  1896,  pp.  103-6. 
Course  of  Study,  Burlington,  Iowa,  1917.     Leaflet. 

Course  of  Study  of  City  Schools,  Cadillac,  Michigan,  1895-96,  p.  12. 

Public  Schools  of  City  of  California,  Missouri,  1883-84,  p.  38. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Calumet,  Michigan,  1895-96,  p.  78. 


294  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

General  Rules  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Calumet,  Michigan, 

1916,  pp.  18-26. 
Public  Schools,  Calumet,  Michigan,  1906,  pp.  76-88. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Canal  Fulton,  Ohio,  1892,  p.  12. 
Rules,  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Casson,  Minnesota,  1893,  p.  33. 
Report  Board  of  Education,  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  p.  14. 
Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools,  Cheboygan,  Michigan,  1909-10,  pp.  14-15. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Cheboygan  {Michigan)  High  School,  1916.     Leaflet. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Chicago,  Illinois,  1872,  p.  220. 
Ibid.,  1883,  p.  21. 

Report  Board  of  Education,  Chicago,  Illinois,  1862. 
Ibid.,  August,  1892. 

Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1868,  p.  153. 
Ibid.,  1879,  pp.  304-6. 

Annual  Report  of  Public  Schools,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1887,  II,  145-47. 
Annual  School  Report,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1857,  pp.  123-24. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1875,  pp.  18-27. 
Ibid.,  1876,  pp.  69-73. 
Ibid.,  1891. 

Annual  School  Report,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1869,  pp.  62-64. 

Report  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Coldwater,  Michigan,  1859,  p.  260. 
Thirty-eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Columbia  (Missouri)  Public  Schools,  1910-11, 

pp.  18-26.  f,S 

Forty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Columbia,   Missouri,   1916, 

pp.  40-50. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Columbus,  Ohio,  1873,  pp.  84-91. 
Ibid.,  1878,  II,  45-46. 
lUd.,  1889,  pp.  222-23. 
Ibid.,  1897,  pp.  228-29. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Cresco,  Iowa,  1888,  p.  11. 
Catalog  and  Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Crookston,  Minnesota,  1896-97,  pp.  71-75. 

Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Danville,  Illinois,  1895,  p.  35. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Danville,  Illinois,  1871,  pp.  26-27. 

Ibid.,  1881,  p.  14. 

Ibid.,  1888,  p.  14. 

Course  of  Study  and  Requirements  for  Graduation,  Danville  (Illinois)  High  School, 

1916.     Leaflet. 
Courses  of  Study  and  Plan  of  Work,  Danville,  Illinois,  1898,  pp.  4-5. 
Danville  (Illinois)  High  School  Announcement  and  Course  of  Study,   1909-10, 

pp.  7-15. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1875,  pp.  248-50. 
Ibid.,  1878,  pp.  235-37. 
Ibid.,  1883-84,  pp.  169-70. 
Ibid.,  1886,  pp.  169-70. 
Ibid.,  1886,  pp.  169-70. 

Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Decatur,  Illinois,  1870,  pp.  22-27. 
Announcement  of  the  Delavan  (Wisconsin)  High  School,  1917.  Leaflet. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  295 

Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools,  Delavan,  Wisconsin,  1893,  pp.  26-28. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Delavan  High  School,  Delavan,  Wisconsin,  19 10-1 1 .    Leaflet. 

Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  (North)  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  1895-96,  p.  30. 

Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  Detroit,  Michigan,  1868,  p.  57. 

Catalog  of  the  Detroit  (Michigan)  High  Schools,  1909-11,  pp.  42-47. 

Hand-Book  of  the  Detroit  (Michigan)  High  Schools,  1917-18,  pp.  34-81. 

Report  of  President  Board  of  Education,  Detroit,  Michigan,  1859,  pp.  23-24. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  Course  of  Study,  City  of  Elgin, 

Illinois,  1916,  pp.  74-114. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  City  of  Elgin,  Illinois,  1910,  pp.  114-32. 
Elkhart  (Indiana)  High  School,  1915-16.    Leaflet. 
Elkhart  (Indiana)  Public  Schools;  With  Suggestions  and  Directions  to  Teachers, 

1907,  pp.  117-39. 

Annual  Report  City  of  Emporia,  Kansas,  1885,  p.  42. 

Evanston  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1907-8,  pp.  7-19. 

Ibid.,  1917,  pp.  23-46. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Evansville,  Indiana,  1888,  p.  54. 

Revised  Course  of  Study,  Evansville,  Indiana,  1896,  pp.  6-7. 

Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Evansville,  Wisconsin,  1897,  p.  45. 

City  Schools  of  Fairbury,  Nebraska,  1907.    Leaflet. 

Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Fairbury,  Nebraska,  1889-90,  pp.  19-21. 

Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Fargo,  North  Dakota,  1885,  pp.  39-40. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Flandreau,  South  Dakota,  1894,  p.  12. 

Rules,  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Forrest,  Illinois,  1885,  p.  17. 

Annual  Report  of  City  Schools,  Fort  Scott,  Kansas,  1892,  pp.  59-61. 

Manual  of  Board  of  Education  and  Course  of  Study,  Fort  Scott,  Kansas,  1883,  p.  3. 

Course  of  Study  in  the  High  School,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  1895,  p.  10. 

Program  of  Studies  of  the  Fort  Wayne  (Indiana)  High  and  Manual  Training  School, 

1910.     Leaflet 
Ibid.,  1916.     Leaflet. 

Rules,  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Fredonia,  Kansas,  1896,  p.  ii. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Fremont,  Nebraska,  1892,  pp.  61-66. 

Course  of  Study  and  Catalog  of  Pupils,  Galena,  Illinois,  1879,  p.  23. 

Annual  Report  Public  Schools,  Galesburg,  Illinois,  1865,  p.  9. 

Outline  of  Course  of  Study  and  Regulations  for  the  Government  of  the  Schools,  Gene- 

seo,  Illinois,  1887,  p.  14. 
Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools,  Girard,  Illinois,  1900,  p.  5. 

Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  1880,  pp.  67-73. 
Ibid.,  1891,  p.  118. 
Ibid.,  1896,  p.  166. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Greenview,  Illinois,  1887,  pp.  18-19. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Harveysburg,  Ohio,  1891,  pp.  12-13. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Hebron,  Nebraska,  1893,  p.  13. 
Annual  Report  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Hutchinson,  Kansas, 

1908,  p.  98. 

Course  of  Study,  Hutchinson  (Kansas)  High  School.    Typewritten  copy. 


296  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Indlanola,  Iowa,  1899,  pp.  30-31. 

Announcement  and  Course  of  Study,  Ionia  (Michigan)  High  School,  1917.    Leaflet. 

Manual  of  the  Ionia  (Michigan)  Public  Schools,  1910-11,  pp.  30-40. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  345-47.     (Creston,  Iowa.) 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  282-84. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  295-96. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  316. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  235. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  286-87. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  301-2. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  304. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  299. 

History  of  Education  in  Iowa,  III,  314-15. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Jacksonville,  Illinois,  1878-79,  p.  76. 

Ibid.,  1896-97,  p.  43. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Jacksonville,  Illinois,  1869,  p.  50. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Jamestown,  Ohio,  1896,  pp.  19-20. 

Rules  and  Regulations,  Janesville,  Minnesota,  1891,  p.  13. 

Annual  Report,  Rules  and  Regulations,  and  Course  of  Study,  Joliet,  Illinois,  1894- 

95,  p.  78. 
Report  of  Superintendent,  Joliet,  Illinois,  1873,  pp.  51-52. 

Catalog  of  Officers  and  Teachers  of  the  Public  Schools,  Kalamazoo,  Michigan, 

1864-65,  pp.  14-16. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Kankakee,  Illinois,  1890,  pp.  37-38. 
Ibid.,  1906,  pp.  34-37. 
Ibid.,  1916. 

Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  School,  Kankakee,  Illinois,  1875,  p.  10. 
Annual  Report  of  the  City  Schools,  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  1883-84,  pp.  119-20. 
New  Trier  (Kenilworth,  Illinois)   Township  High  School  Year  Book,  1910,  pp. 

13-61. 
Ibid.,  1915-16,  pp.  23-66. 

Revised  Course  of  Study  and  General  Regulations,  Keokuk,  Iowa,  1892-93,  pp.  5-7. 
Superintendent's  Report  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Knoxville,  Illinois,  1900,  pp. 

20-21. 

Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  Lacon,  Illinois,  1856,  p.  4. 

Public  Schools,  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin:  Course  of  Study,  Rules  and  Regulations, 

1908,  pp.  91-104. 
Report  and  Manual  of  the  Public  Schools,  Lafayette,  Indiana,  1887,  pp.  46-48. 
Graded  Course  of  Study,  Lanark,  Illinois,  1894,  p.  15. 
Course  of  Sttidy  and  Text-Books  for  the  Lansing,  Michigan,  High  School,  1917. 

Leaflet. 
Lansing,  Michigan,  Public  Schools  Course  of  Study,  1910,  pp.  71-88. 
Calendar,  Laporte,  Indiana,  Public  Schools,  1875,  pp.  30-31. 
Ibid.,  1879,  1885,  p.  36. 

Calendar  Public  Schools,  Laporte,  Indiana,  1883,  p.  32. 
Public  Schools,  Laporte,  Indiana,  1910,  pp.  39-57. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  297 

Circular  of  Information,  Township  High  School,  La  Salle-Peru,  Illinois,  1915-16. 

Leaflet. 
Eighth  Annual  Catalog  of  the  Township  High  School,  La  Salle  and  Peru,  Illinois, 

1906-7,  pp.  15-53. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Lawrence,  Kansas,  1884,  p.  48. 
Annual  Report  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  1867,  pp.  43-44. 
Course  of  Study  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  High  School,  1910.    Typewritten  copy. 
Ibid.,  1918.    Leaflet. 

Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Lebanon,  Ohio,  1897,  p.  63. 

Report,  Courses  of  Study,  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Lebanon,  Indiana,  1894,  p.  29. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Courses  of  Study,  Le  Roy,  Minnesota,  1890. 
Ibid.,  1859,  p.  294. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Lewiston,  Illinois,  1896,  p.  24. 
Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Lexington,  Missouri,  1897-98. 
Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  1896-97,  pp.  50-51. 
Annual  Report  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  1882,  pp. 

14-15. 
Course  of  Study  and  General  Regulations,  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  1893,  p.  8. 
Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  1888,  pp.  52-54. 
Rules  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  1877,  p.  34. 

Rules  and  Regulations,  Macomb,  Illinois,  1875,  p.  11. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Macomb,  Illinois,  1898-99,  p.  38. 

Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  1876,  p.  32. 

Ibid.,  1883,  pp.  52-53. 

Ibid.,  1898,  pp.  56-57. 

Report  Board  of  Education,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  1863; 

Ibid.,  1867. 

lUd.,  1892,  pp.  39-41. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Mantua,  Ohio,  1896,  p.  13. 

Manual  and  Course  of  Study  and  General  Information  of  tlie  Marinette  (Wisconsin) 

High  School,  1916,  pp.  16-35. 
Marinette  Free  High  School,  Marinette,  Wisconsin:  A  Manual  of  the  Course  of 

Study  and  General  Information,  1910,  pp.  3-16. 
Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Marion,  Illinois,  1899,  p.  61. 
Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Markle,  Indiana,  1896,  p.  19. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Mattoon,  Illinois,  1877,  p.  5. 
Regulations  and  Courses  of  Study,  Maumee,  Ohio,  1898,  p.  14. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Miamisburg  (Ohio)  High  School,  1909.    Leaflet. 
Rules  Governing  the  Choosing  of  Courses  of  Study  and  Courses  of  Study  of  the 

Miamisburg  (Ohio)  High  School,  1916.    Leaflet. 
Report  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Michigan,  1855-56-57,  p.  465. 
Catalog  Containing  Course  of  Study,  etc.,  Middleville,  Michigan. 
Annual  Report  of  School  Board,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  1874,  p.  Ix. 
Ibid.,  1884,  p.  54. 

Rules  and  Regulations,  Minerva,  Ohio,  1894,  p.  14. 
Annual  Report  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Mitchell,  South  Dakota, 

1916-17,  pp.  14-51. 


298  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Mitchell,  South  Dakota,  1911-12,  pp.  10-12. 

Annual  Report  of  Moline,  Illinois,  Public  Schools,  1881,  p.  24. 

Annual  Report  of  Public  Schools,  Moline,  Illinois,  1891,  p.  38. 

Announcement  of  the  Public  Schools,  Monroe,  Michigan,  1896,  p.  29. 

Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Monroe,  Wisconsin,  1907-8,  pp.  75-78.  Course 
of  Study  of  the  Monroe,  Wisconsin,  High  School  (Junior-Senior),  1917.  Leaf- 
let. 

Manual  of  Graded  Course  of  Study,  Monroe,  Wisconsin,  1891,  pp.  27-28. 

Catalog  and  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Monticello,  Illinois,  1895,  p.  42. 

Course  of  Study  and  Second  Annual  Catalog,  Monticello,  Illinois,  1881,  p.  21. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations,  Moron,  Kansas,  1896,  p.  11. 

Manual  of  High  School,  Mount  Gilead,  Ohio,  1892,  pp.  20-21. 

Announcement  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Muscatine,  Iowa,  1910-1 1,  pp.  14-17. 

Course  of  Study  High  School,  Muscatine,  Iowa   1917.    Leaflet. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Napoleon,  Ohio,  1888,  p.  29. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Neosha,  Missouri,  1889-90,  p.  50. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Newark,  Ohio,  1896-97-98,  p.  53. 
Bi-Annual  Report  of  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Newark,  Ohio,  1881-82,  p.  57. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  New  Haven,  Conn.  1859,  p.  31. 
Proceedings  Board  of  Education,  Normal,  Illinois,  June,  1870.     A  list  of  subjects 

taught  in  the  high  school  arranged  according  to  years  and  terms. 
Course  of  Study,  Norwalk,  Ohio,  1915.     Leaflet. 

Revised  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Oak  Park,  Illinois,  1882,  pp.  27-29. 
Annual  Report  and  Manual  of  Public  Schools,  Oberlin,  Ohio,  1873,  pp.  7-9. 
Ibid.,  1877,  p.  22. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  Public  Schools,  Odell,  Illinois,  1889, 

p.  9. 
Annual  Report  Public  Schools,  Olney,  Illinois,  1893,  pp.  29-30. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Omaha  (Nebraska)  High  School,  1910.     Leaflet. 
Ibid.,  1915.     Leaflet. 

Manual  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Oshkosh,  Wisconsin,  1908-9,  pp.  27-29. 
Ibid.,  1918,  pp.  33-38. 

Annual  Report  Public  Schools,  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  1899,  p.  105. 
Manual  and  Annual  Report  of  the  City  Schools,  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  1892-93-94, 

pp.  67-68. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  1873,  p.  13. 
Ibid.,  1878,  p.  37. 

Rules,  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  1884,  p.  41. 
Catalog  of  the  Officers,  Teachers,  and  Students  of  the  Ottawa  {Illinois)  Township 

High  School,  1907-1907,  pp.  5-13. 
Public  Schools,  Ottumwa,  Iowa,  1918,  pp.  42-67. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Ottumwa,  Iowa, 

1911,  pp.  40-49. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Pawnee  City,  Nebraska,  1897-98,  p.  17. 
Pontiac  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1905-6,  pp.  12-22. 
Pontiac  (Illinois)  Township  High  School  Catalog,  1917,  pp.  12-21. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  299 

Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools,  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin,  1890,  p.  7. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin,  1897, 
p.  9. 

Manual  Board  of  Education,  Racine,  Wisconsin,  1891,  p.  60. 

Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Racine,  Wisconsin,  1883,  pp.  49-50. 

Report  Board  of  Education,  Racine,  Wisconsin,  1857-58,  p.  73. 

Annual  Report  Public  Schools,  Richmond,  Indiana,  1875,  p.  31. 

Ibid.,  1877,  p.  15. 

Ibid.,  1885,  pp.  68-69. 

Proceedings  Board  of  Education,  Rock  Island,  Illinois,  May,  1856. 

Saginaw,  Michigan,  High  School  Circular  of  Information  and  Curriculum  of  Study, 

1917,  pp.  6-14. 
Saginaw,  Michigan,  High  School  Course  of  Study,  1911.     Leaflet. 
Annual  Report  of  Public  Schools,  Sandusky,  Ohio,  1889,  pp.  80-82. 
Courses  of  Study  of  the  Sheboygan  {Wisconsin)  High  School,  1910.     Leaflet. 
Ibid.,  1917.     Leaflet. 

Public  Schools  of  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  1891-92,  pp.  49-51. 
Report  of  Public  Schools,  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  1900,  pp.  46-47. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Sioux  Falls  (South  Dakota)  High  School,  1910.     Leaflet. 
Ibid.,  1917.     Leaflet. 

Annual  Report  of  Public  Schools,  Springfield,  Illinois,  1890,  p.  54. 
Ibid.,  1893,  p.  65. 

Annual  Report  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Springfield,  Illinois,  1867,  pp.  26-27. 
Ibid.,  1880,  pp.  72-73. 

Course  of  Study,  Stillwater,  Minnesota,  1897-98,  pp.  84-91. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Directors,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  1871,  p.  59. 
Ibid.,  1878,  pp.  49-50. 
Annual  Report  of  the  President  and  Board  of  Directors,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  1882, 

p.  11. 
High  School  Courses  of  Study,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  1911.     Leaflet. 
Ibid.,  1918.     Leaflet. 

Streator  Township  High  School,  Streator,  Illinois,  1896-97,  pp.  6-8. 
School  Calendar,  Superior,  Nebraska,  1892,  p.  26. 

Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  Waterloo,  Iowa,  1870,  p.  19. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Watertown,  South  Dakota,  High  School,  1918.     Typewritten 

copy. 
Manual  of  the  Public  Schools,  Waverly,  Iowa,  1900,  pp.  52-53. 
Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  Waverly,  Iowa,  1888,  p.  22. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Wilton,  Iowa,  1880,  p.  8. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Yankton  (South  Dakota)  City  Schools,  1911,  pp.  55-63. 
IMd.,  1917-18,  pp.  63-94. 

The  High  School,  Ypsilanti,  Michigan:  Annual  Announcement,  1917,  pp.  15-20. 
The  Public  Schools,  Ypsilanti,  Michigan:  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regula- 
tions, 1911,  pp.  119-29. 


300  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

III 

Other  sources  used  as  supplementary  to  Section  II. 
Students'  Manual,  Aberdeen  City  Schools,  Aberdeen,  South  Dakota,  1903-4. 
Adrian  Public  Schools,  Adrian,  Michigan.     Report  of  the  Board  of  Education 

{1890-95),  1895.     Details  of  work  in  English. 
Announcement  of  the  Adrian  High  School,  Adrian,  Michigan,  1898.     Contains 

outline  of  work  in  English. 
Catalog  of  the  Officers,  Teachers  and  Students  of  the  Alton  {Illinois)  Township  High 

School,  1903-4. 
Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Appleton,  Wisconsin,  1893.     List  of 

textbooks. 
Ibid.,  1900.     List  of  textbooks. 
Course  of  Study  for  the  Attica,  Indiana,  Public  Schools  for  the  Year  1893-94.    Some 

details  of  work  in  literature. 
Report  and  Manual  of  the  Attica,  Indiana,  Public  Schools,  1895.     List  of  textbooks. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  Augusta,  Illinois,  Public  Schools, 

1886. 
Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Aurora  {Illinois)  Public  Schools,  East  Side, 

1907. 

Ibid.,  1917. 
Aurora  Public  Schools,  West  Side,  Aurora,  Illinois,  1907. 

Organization  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Enrollment  of  Pupils  and  Teachers  and 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  District  No.  5,  Aurora,  Illinois,  1887. 

Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Baltimore,  Maryland,  1851. 

Ibid.,  1855. 

Manual  of  the  Public  Schools,  Batavia,  Illinois,  1902. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Belvidere,  Illinois, 

1888-89. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Boone,  Iowa, 

1910. 
Annual  Report  of  the  School  Committee  Together  with  the  Annual  Report  of  the 

Superintendent  oftlie  Public  Schools  of  Boston  {Massachusetts).    1858. 
Ibid.,  1859. 
Ibid.,  1880. 

Regulations  of  the  School  Committee,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  1823. 
Ibid.,  1827. 
Ibid.,  1829. 
lUd.,  1830. 
Ibid.,  1833. 
Ibid.,  1838. 
Rules  of  the  Schools  Committee  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of 

Boston  {Massachusetts) ,  1839. 
Ibid.,  1841. 
Ibid.,  1844. 
Ibid.,  1849. 
Ibid.,  1851. 
Ibid.,  1853. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  301 

Course  of  Study  of  Burlington,  Iowa,  1910.    Typewritten  copy. 

Ibid.,  1855. 

Course  of  Study  in  High  and  District  Schools  of  Burlington,  Iowa,  and  Rules  and 

Regulations  for  the  same.     Adopted  by  the  board  of  education,   1888-89. 

List  of  textbooks. 

Public  Schools,  Calumet,  Michigan,  1906. 

Revised  Course  of  Study  of  the  City  of  Camden,  Illinois,  1890. 

Course  of  Study  with  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Canal  Fulton, 
Ohio.    Adopted  November,  1892. 

Course  of  Study,  Carthage,  Illinois,  1909-10.    Leaflet. 

Sixth  Annual  Report,  1860.  Department  of  Public  Instruction.  City  of  Chicago. 
Discusses  the  relative  value  of  modern  languages.  Recommendation  that 
more  time  be  devoted  to  natural  sciences. 

Twelfth  Annual  Report  Board  of  Education  for  the  Year  Ending  July  31,  1866. 
Department  of  Public  Instruction  of  City  of  Chicago.  Defense  of  the  high 
school  by  the  superintendent,  pp.  46-65.  He  also  advocates  reorganization 
of  the  course  of  study  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  community.  The 
German  Realschule  commended  as  meeting  the  demands  of  modern  life. 

Ibid.,  Sixteenth  Annual  Report,  1869. 

Ibid.,  Seventeenth  Annual  Report,  1871.  In  this  report  the  president  of  the  board 
urges  the  necessity  of  meeting  the  educational  need  of  the  industrial  classes; 
also  comments  on  the  service  rendered  by  the  high  school  as  a  training  school 
for  teachers.    List  of  textbooks. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-first  Annual  Report,  1874.  An  interesting  statement  concerning 
the  work  done  in  the  high  school  as  compared  with  the  average  college  course, 
p.  18. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-first  Annual  Report,  1875.  Discussion  in  the"  report  of  the  two-year 
high  schools. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-second  Annual  Report,  1876.  Historical  sketch,  pp.  50-60.  List  of 
textbooks. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1878.  Industrial  education  discussed  in  the 
report. 

Twenty-seventh  Annual  Report,  1881.  President  in  his  report  urges  the  necessity 
of  a  law  authorizing  a  tax  levy  for  the  support  ot  industrial  education. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-eighth  Annual  Report,  1882.  President  in  his  report  comments  on 
the  demand  for  industrial  education. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report,  1883.  Both  the  president  and  the  superinten- 
dent in  their  reports  urge  the  introduction  of  manual  training. 

Ibid.,  Thirtieth  Annual  Report,  1884.  Discussion  of  relative  merits  of  academies 
and  high  schools.  President  in  his  report  discusses  the  influence  of  higher 
institutions  upon  the  high  schools. 

Ibid.,  Thirty-second  Annual  Report,  1886.  Interesting  discussion  of  manual  train- 
ing. The  president  in  his  report  opposes  the  introduction  while  the  superin- 
tendent in  his  report  advocates  it. 

Ibid.,  Thirty-third  Annual  Report,  1887.  A  new  president  of  the  board  urges  the 
importance  of  manual  training. 

Ibid.,  Thirty-fifth  Annual  Report,  1889.  Discussion  of  the  overcrowded  condition 
of  the  curriculum.    List  of  textbooks. 


302  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Ibid.,  Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report,  1891. 

Ibid.,  Thirty-eighth  Annual  Report,  1892,    Discussion  of  work  in  manual  training 

and  physical  culture. 
Ibid.,  Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report,  1893.     Discussion  of  the  plan  of  industrial 

education  in  the  public  schools. 
Ibid.,  Fortieth  Annual  Report,  1894.    President  of  the  board  discussed  the  report 

of  the  Committee  of  Ten. 
Ibid.,  Forty-second  Annual  Report,  June  26,   1896.     Discussion  of  commercial 

education  by  president  of  the  board. 
Ibid.,  Forty-third  Annual  Report,  1897.     Discussion  of  commercial  education  by 

president  of  the  board. 
Austin  Public  Schools.     Report  of  Board  of  Education.     School  District  No.  2. 

Town  of  Cicero,  Cook  County,  Illinois,  1895. 
Common  Schools  of  Cincinnati  (Ohio).    Part  First:  Forty-second  Annual  Report 

for  the  School  Year  Ending  June  30,  1872.    Part  Second:  A  Handbook  for 

the  School  Year  Ending  June  30, 1873. 
Ibid.,  1878.    Part  First:  Forty-ninth  Annual  Report.    Part  Second:  A  handbook 

for  1879. 
Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Public  Schools  for  the  Year 

Ending  August,   1865.     Various  supplementary  documents  dealing  with 

school  conditions. 
Sixteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Managers  for  the   Year  Ending  1852. 

Public  Schools  of  the  city  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.    List  of  textbooks. 
Thirty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  for  the 

Year  Ending  August  31,  1870. 
Ibid.,  Thirty-fifith  Annual  Report,  1871. 
Ibid.,  Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report,  1875. 
Ibid.,  Forty-seventh  Annual  Report,  1883.    Percentages  shown  of  pupils  enrolled 

in  each  grade  from  1873  to  1883.    Also  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the 

various  high  school  courses. 
Ibid.,  Forty-ninth  Annual  Report,  1885.    This  report  shows  the  number  of  pupils 

enrolled  in  each  of  the  high-school  courses. 
Ibid.,  Fiftieth  Annual  Report,  1886.    List  of  textbooks. 

Ibid.,  Fifty-third  Annual  Report,  1889.    Explanation  of  work  in  manual  training. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Columbus  {Ohio)  Public  Schools 

for  the  Year  Ending  August  1,  1879. 
Ibid.,  1880. 
Ibid.,  1892. 
Ibid.,  1893. 
Ibid.,  1894. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  of  the  School  Commissioners  and  Super- 
intendent, with  the  Laws  Pertaining  to  the  Public  Schools  of  Columbus,  Ohio, 

1851. 
Manual  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Connersville,  Indiana,  1907. 

Annual  Report  Board  of  Education,  Danville,  Illinois,  and  Rules  and   Course 

of  Study,  1895. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Danville  {Illinois),  1902. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  303 

Course  of  Study  and  Requirements  for  Graduation,  Danville  (Illinois)  High  School, 

1913.     Leaflet. 
Fifth  Annual  Catalog  of  Danville  (Illinois)  Union  Schools  and  Circular  of  Informa- 
tion, 1889. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  for  the  School  Year  Ending  August  31, 
1875.    Dayton,  Ohio,  Public  Schools.    List  of  textbooks. 

Ibid.,  1876.    List  of  textbooks. 

Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Decatur,  Illinois,  with  Rules 
and  Course  of  Study,  1874. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-seventh  Annual  Report,  1891. 

Catalog  of  the  Delavan  Public  Schools,  Delavan,  Wisconsin,  1894.  Courses  of 
Study.  List  of  Alumni.  Catalog  of  library.  Contains  discussion  of  aims 
and  purposes  of  the  high  school.    List  of  textbooks. 

Delavan  Public  Schools,  Delavan,  Illinois,  1891.    Some  details  of  work  in  English. 

Bi-Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  (West)  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  1892-94. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Detroit,  Michigan,  with 
Reports  of  Committees  and  Teachers,  1853.  In  the  report  the  president  dis- 
cusses the  legal  status  of  the  high  school. 

Eighteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Detroit  (Michigan)  Public  Schools,  with  Accom- 
panying Documents  for  the  Year  1860.  Brief  historical  account  of  the  high 
school.     Causes  of  opposition  to  the  high  school  discussed. 

Official  Report  ofD.  Bethune,  President  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Detroit,  Michigan, 
for  the  Year  1858.  Reports  of  teachers  of  Union  Schools  and  the  reports  from 
the  Committee  on  Schools  and  Committee  on  Teachers.  In  this  report  the 
president  discusses  the  "Free  Academy  or  High  School"  as  the  "Academic 
link  between  the  Free  School  and  the  University." 

Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Detroit,  Michigan,  for  the  Year  1855. 

Twenty-first  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Detroit,  Michigan,  for  the 
Year  Ending  December  31,  1863. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Duluth,  Minnesota,  July  31, 
1893. 

Junior  High  Schools,  Duluth,  Minnesota,  1917.    Leaflet. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  City  of  Elgin 

Illinois,  1910. 
Course  of  Study  in  the  Elgin,  Illinois,  High  School,  1891.    Four- page  pamphlet. 

List  of  textbooks. 
Course  of  Study  with  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  East  Side 

Schools  of  El  Paso,  Illinois,  1892. 
Ibid.,  1895.    Some  details  of  work  in  English. 
First  Annual  Announcement  with  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the 

West  Side  Public  Schools.    El  Paso,  Illinois,  1895.    Some  details  of  work  in 

English. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Emporia,  Kansas,  for  the 

Year  Ending  June  30,  1900. 
Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Emporia  (Kansas)   City 

Schools  for  the  Year  Ending  July  31,  1889.    List  of  Textbooks. 
Evanston  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1905-6.    Leaflet. 


304  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Evanston  Township  High  School,  1894-95.    Four-page  pamphlet. 

Revised  Course  of  Study  of  the  Evansville,  Indiana,  High  School,  1897.     Some 

details  of  work  in  English. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Exeter,  Nebraska,  1893. 

Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  School  Board  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Schools  of 
Fairfield,  Ohio,  1889.    List  of  classics  given. 

City  Schools  of  Flint,  Michigan,  1897-98. 

Course  of  Study  with  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  Public  Schools,  Forrest,  Illinois, 
1894. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Fort  Scott,  (Kansas)  City  Schools  for  the  Year  Ending  July  31, 
1892,  and  Announcement  for  1892-93.  List  of  textbooks.  Some  details  of 
work  in  English. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  1899.  List  of  text- 
books. 

Course  of  Study  and  the  First  Annual  Catalog  of  Pupils  of  the  Galena,  Illinois, 
City  Schools  Together  with  Rules  and  Regulations,  1879. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Galena,  Illinois,  High  School,  1896.  Two-page  pamphlet. 
List  of  textbooks. 

General  Rules  and  Course  of  Studies,  Graduates,  etc.,  Galena  Public  Schools,  Galena, 
Illinois.    1894, 

Rules  for  the  Government  of  the  Galena,  Illinois,  Public  Schools  with  Course  of 
Study  and  a  List  of  Graduates  of  the  High  School. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Geneseo,  Illinois,  High  School.    Four-page  pamphlet. 

Outline  of  the  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of 
Geneseo,  Illinois,    Pamphlet. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Gibson  City  Schools,  Gibson  City, 
Illinois,  With  the  Superintendent's  Report,  1895.    Details  of  work  in  English. 

Course  of  Study  for  tJie  Public  Schools  of  Gibson  City,  Illinois,  1889.  List  of  text- 
book. 

Catalog  of  the  Girard,  Illinois,  Public  Schools,  1900.    List  of  textbooks. 

Annual  Catalog  of  the  Officers,  Inspectors,  and  Students  of  the  Grand  Rapids,  Michi- 
gan, Public  Schools,  1860. 

Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Grand  Rapids, 
Michigan,  Together  with  the  School  Law  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Schools 
and  the  Public  Library,  1886.    List  of  classics  given. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  South  Side  Public  Schools  of  Gray- 
ville,  Illinois,  1893. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Greenview, 
Illinois,  1894. 

Course  of  Study  in  the  Hannibal  (Missouri)  High  School,  1912-13. 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Harveysburg, 

Ohio,  1891. 
Rules  and  Regulations,  Manual  of  Instruction,  and  Graded  Courses  of  Study  of  the 

Public  Schools  of  Hinsdale,  Illinois,  1891.    Some  details  of  work  in  English. 
Thirteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  District  No.  1,  Hyde  Park, 

Illinois,  1886. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  305 

Ionia  {Michigan)  Public  Schools.    Manual  and  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education, 

1912. 
Circular  Containing  Courses  of  Study,  Programs,  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public 

Schools  of  Independence,  Iowa,  1891. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Kankakee  {Illinois)  Public  Schools,  1909. 

Seventeenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Kansas  City  {Missouri)  Public  Schools  for  the 

Year  1887-88. 
A  Manual  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Keithsburg,  Illinois,  1893-94. 
New  Trier  {Kenilworth,  Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1910. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Knoxville,  Illinois,  Public  Schools  with  Rules  and  Regulations 

of  the  Board  of  Education,  1892.    Outline  of  work  in  English. 
Superintendent's  Report  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Knoxville,  Illinois,  Public 

Schools  Together  with  Courses  of  Study,  1900. 

Courses  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Lacon,  Illinois,  1894. 

Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Lyons  Township  High  School 

{La  Grange)  Cook  County,  Illinois,  1891. 
Ibid.,  Fourth  Annual  Report,  1892. 
Ibid.,  Eighth  Annual  Report,  1896. 
Ibid.,  Ninth  Annual  Report,  1897. 
Ibid.,  Eleventh  Annual  Report,  1899. 

Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Lakeview  {Illinois)  High  School,  1878. 
Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Lakeview  {Illinois)  High  School,  1876. 
A  Graded  Course  of  Study  of  the  Lanark,  Illinois,  Public  Schools,  1894. 
Calendar  of  the  Laporte  {Indiana)  Public  Schools  for  1880-81. 
Ibid.,  1882-83. 
Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Laporte  {Indiana)  for  the  Year  Ending  June  24, 1889. 

List  of  textbooks. 
Ibid.,  1891-92.    Some  details  of  work  in  English.    Outline  of  high-school  work  in 

some  detail. 
Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Lawrence,  Kansas, 

1873. 
Ibid.,  Eighth  Annual  Report,  1875. 
Ibid.,  Ninth  Annual  Report,  1876. 
Ibid.,  Eleventh  Annual  Report,  1878. 
Ibid.,  Twelfth  Annual  Report,  1879. 
Ibid.,  Thirteenth  Annual  Report,  1880. 
Ibid.,  Fourteenth  Annual  Report,  1881. 
Ibid.,  Fifteenth  Annual  Report,  1882. 

Ibid.,  Twentieth  Annual  Report,  1887.    List  of  classics  given. 
Ibid.,  Twenty-first  Annual  Report,  1888. 
Ibid.,  Twenty-second  Annual  Report,  1889. 
Ibid.,  Twenty-third  Annual  Report,  1890. 
Manual  of  the  Lebanon  {Indiana)  High  School,  1909. 
Report  of  the  Lebanon,  Indiana,  Public  Schools  for  1894-95  and  Course  of  Study 

Together  with  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  Government  of  the  Schools. 
Course  of  Study  with  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Le  Roy,  Illinois, 

Together  with  the  Names  of  Alumni  and  other  Items  of  Interest  Concerning  the 

Le  Roy  Public  Schools,  1889. 


306  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Public  Schools  of  Le  Roy,  Illinois,  1894-95,  Rules  and  Regulations,  Course  of  Study 

and  Manual  of  Information. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Lewiston,  Illinois,  Public  Schools, 

1896. 
Course  of  Study  with  Rulfs  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Lexington, 

Illinois,  Together  with  Names  of  Alumni,  1892. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Lincoln,  Nebraska, 

for  the  Year  1896-97. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  Public  Schools, 

1900. 
Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public 

Schools  of  the  School  District  of  Lincoln  {Nebraska)  for  the  School  Year  Ending 

June  11,  1880. 
Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  School  District  of  Lincoln 

(Nebraska)  for  the  School  Year  Ending  June  25,  1875. 
Rules,  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Lodi,  Wisconsin, 

Adopted  August  30,  1895. 
Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  1839. 
Ibid.,  1840. 
Ibid.,  1843. 
Ibid.,  1851. 
Ibid.,  1852. 
Ibid.,  1857. 
First  Annual  Catalog  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Mackinaw,  Illinois,  for  the  Session 

1895. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Macomb, 

Illinois,  1902-3. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  Superintendent  of  Schools  for  the 

Year  1864—65.     Department  of  Public  Instruction,  City  of  Madison,  Wis- 
consin. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Madison  {Wisconsin),  1870.    List  of 

textbooks. 
Ibid.,  1869. 
Ibid.,  1872. 
Ibid.,  1867. 

Ibid.,  1884.     List  of  textbooks. 
Ibid.,  1885.     Historical  sketch,  1838-85. 
Annual  Report  of  the  City  of  Madison  {Wisconsin),  1895.     History  from  1858 

to  1895.     Historical  material. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Madison  {Wisconsin)  for  the 

Year  1889-90.     List  of  textbooks. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Maquoketa,  Iowa,  1896. 

County,  Illinois,  1878.    List  of  textbooks. 
Manual  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Marinette,  Wisconsin,  1905-6. 
Announcement  and  Catalog  of  the  Marlette,  Michigan,  Public  Schools,  Containing 

Organization,  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  School  Year 

1900-1901. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Marseilles,  Illinois,  Public  Schools. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  307 

Mason  City,  Illinois,  Public  Schools,  1891. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools,  Mattoon,  Illinois,  1891.     Meager  details  of 

work  in  composition. 
Course  of  Studies,  Public  Schools  of  McLeansboro,  Illinois,  1897.     List  of  text- 
books. 
An  Announcement  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Mendon  High  School  at  Mendon, 

Adams  County,  Illinois,  1895. 
Course  of  Study  for  the  Public  Schools  of  Metropolis,  Illinois,  1896-97. 
Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  the 

State  of  Michigan  with  Accompanying  Documents  for  the  Year  1860.     Union 

School  Reports. 
Ibid.,  1874.     Report  of  City  Union  Schools.     An  interesting  discussion  in  this 

report  of  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  establishing  the  legal  status  of 

the  high  school. 
Ibid.,  Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report,  1875.     Contains  reports  of  city  graded  and 

high  schools. 
Ibid.,  Fortieth  Annual  Report,  1876.     Report  of  city  and  graded  and  high  schools. 
Ibid.,  Forty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1880.     Historical  sketch  relating  to  secondary 

education. 
Course  of  Studies,  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Miles  Public  Schools,  Miles,  Iowa, 

1893. 
Annual  Report  of  the  School  Board  of  the  City  of  Milwaukee  (Wisconsin)  for  the 

Year  Ending  August  31,  1877. 
Ibid.,  1878. 
Ibid.,  1879. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  1909. 
Regulations  and  Rules  of  the  Studies  of  the  Mohomet  Graded  Schools,  Champaign 

County,  Illinois,  1878.     List  of  textbooks. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Moline  (Illinois)  High  School,  1910-11.     Leaflet. 
Twenty-third  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Moline,  Illinois,  1896.     Out- 
line of  work  in  some  detail.     Manual  training  discussed. 
Ibid.,  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1897. 
Ibid.,  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report,  1898. 

Sixty-eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Monmouth  (Illinois),  1912. 
Catalog  and  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Monticello,  Illinois,  for  the 

Year  Ending  June  30,  1895. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Monticello, 

Illinois,  1898. 
Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Monticello,  Illinois,  1905. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Morris  (Illinois)  High  School  for  the   Year  1899-1900. 

Four-page  leaflet. 
Morrison  Public  Schools,  Morrison,  Illinois.     Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course 

of  Study,  1898. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Mount  Carroll,  Illinois,  1900. 
Manual  of  the  Mount  Gilead,  Ohio,  High  School,  Containing  Rules  and  Regulations, 

the  Revised  Course  of  Study,  Catalog  of  the  Graduates  and  General  Information, 

1892.     List  of  textbooks. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Mount  Pulaski, 

Illinois,  1900-1901. 


308  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study,  Including  a  List  of  Graduates  of  the 

Mount  Sterling  (Illinois)  Public  Schools,  1896. 
Manual  of  the  Mount  Vernon  Public  Schools,  Mount  Vernon,  Illinois.     Course 

of  Study,  Rules  and  Regulations,  1895.     Some  details  of  the  work  in  literature. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Murphysboro,  Illinois,  1899. 

List  of  textbooks. 
Eighth  Year  Book  of  the  Murphysboro  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1909-10. 
Second  Annual  Catalog  Murphysboro  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1902-3. 

Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Navarre  Union  Schools,  Navarre, 

Ohio,  1896. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Nebraska  City-Public  Schools,  Nebraska  City,  Nebraska, 

1894. 
Ibid.,  1895.     Contains  details  of  work  in  English. 
Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Neola  Public  Schools,  Neola, 

Iowa,  1898. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  with  Course  of  Study,  etc.     Oakland, 

Illinois,  1897. 
Revised  Course  of  Study  with  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Odell  (Illinois)  Public 

Schools,  1889. 
Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Olney,  Illinois,  for  the  Year 

Ending  July  1,  1893.     Financial  and  statistical  report  and  course  of  study. 
Ibid.,  Twenty-eighth  Annual  Report,  1895.     List  of  textbooks. 
Ibid.,  Tenth  Annual  Report,  1897. 

Manual  and  Annual  Report  of  the  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  Schools,  1896. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Oskaloosa, 

Iowa,  1876. 
Ibid.,  1880.     Contains  list  of  textbooks. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Controllers  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia 

(Pennsylvania),  1837. 
Ibid.,  1840. 
Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Piper  City,  Illinois,  1894. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Richmond  (Indiana)  for  the  School  Year 
Ending  May  28, 1875  with  Courses  of  Study  and  General  Rules  and  Regulations. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Richmond,  Indiana, 
to  the  Board  of  Education  for  the  Year  Ending  June  7, 1882.     List  of  textbooks. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Richmond  (Indiana)  Public  Schools  for 
the  Year  Ending  June  20,  1879,  with  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regula- 
tions. 

Ibid.,  1880. 

Biennial  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Richmond,  Indiana,  for  the  Years  Ending 
July  31,  1890  and  July  31,  1891  with  Announcements  for  1891-92  and  Rules 
and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study. 

Ibid.,  1886-88. 

Ibid.,  1888-89.  List  of  classics  given.  List  of  textbooks.  Historical  sketch  of 
the  schools. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  309 

Catalog  of  the  Officers  and  Teachers  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Richmond, 
Indiana,  and  the  Pupils  of  the  High  School  and  Grammar  Schools.  Rules  and 
Regulations  for  the  Organization  and  Government  of  the  Schools;  and  the  Super- 
intendent's Report  for  the  Year  Ending  August  31,  1870.  Aims  and  purposes 
of  the  high  school  discussed. 

Ruies  and  Regulations  for  the  Government  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Shenandoah, 
Iowa,  with  Course  of  Study  and  Announcements  for  1894-95.  List  of  text- 
textbooks. 

Report  Board  of  Education,  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  1853. 

Ibid.,  1855. 

Twenty-ninth  A  nnual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Springfield  {Illinois)  for  the 
Year  Ending  August  31,  1887. 

Ibid.,  Thirty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1892.  Aims  and  purposes  of  the  high  school 
discussed.    Outline  of  work  in  English. 

Ihid.,  Thirty-sixth  Annual  Report.  Outline  of  work  in  English.  Manual 
training  discussed.    Discussion  of  influence  of  report  of  Committee  of  Ten. 

Thirteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  of  Springfield 
(Illinois)  to  the  Board  of  Education,  1871. 

Ibid.,  Fourteenth  Annual  Report,  1872.    List  of  textbooks. 

Ibid.,  1873.    List  of  textbooks. 

Ibid.,  1874. 

Ibid.,  1876. 

Ibid.,  1877. 

Ibid.,  1878. 

Ibid.,  1879. 

Fifty-ninth  Annual  Report  Springfield  (Missouri)  Public  Schools,  1906-7. 

Sterling  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1909-10. 

Thirteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  St.  Louis  (Missouri)  Public 
Schools  for  the  Year  Ending  August  1,  1867.  Historical  sketch,  pp.  98-114. 
An  interesting  review  of  the  controversy  regarding  the  establishment  of  a  high 
school. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1878. 

Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  St.  Louis  (Missouri) 
Public  Schools  for  the  Year  Ending  August  1,  1869. 

Fifty-third  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  1917. 

Twenty-seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  President  and  Board  of  Directors  of  the  St. 
Louis  (Missouri)  Public  Schools  for  the  Year  Ending  August  31,  1881. 

Ibid.,  Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report,  1883. 

Ibid.,  Thirty-first  Annual  Report,  1885. 

Thirty-second  Annual  Report,  St.  Louis,  June  30,  1886. 

Thirty-third  Annual  Report,  St.  Louis,  June  30,  1887. 

Thirty-fourth  Annual  Report,  St.  Louis,  June  30,  1888. 

The  Streator  Township  High  School,  Streator,  Illinois,  1896-97. 

Ibid.,  1899-1900. 

Streator  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1906-7. 

Announcement  of  the  Taylorville  (Illinois)  Township  High  School,  1891.    Leaflet. 
Catalog  and  Annual  Announcement  of  the  Taylorville  (Illinois)   Township  High 
School,  1896. 


310  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Catalog  and  Fourth  Annual  Announcement  of  the  Taylorville  (Illinois)  Township 

High  School,  1894. 
Regulations  and  Course  of  Instruction  of  the  Tipton,  Ohio,  Public  Schools.    Adopted 

August  9,  1892.    List  of  textbooks. 

Course  of  Study  of  the  Watertown,  South  Dakota  High  School,  1911.    Typewritten 

copy. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  for  Use  in  the  Public  Schools  of  Wheaton, 

Illinois,  1895.    List  of  textbooks. 
Course  of  Study  of  the  Wilmette,  Illinois,  Public  Schools,  1898. 
Rules  and  Regulations  and  Course  of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Wilton,  Iowa, 

1880. 

Ypsilanti  High  School  Annual  Catalog,  Ypsilanti,  Michigan,  1905. 

COLLEGE  AND  UNIVERSITY  CATALOGS 

The  Catalogs  of  the  following  universities  and  colleges  furnish  information 
concerning  entrance  requirements. 
Butler  University  (Indiana),  1892-94. 
Cornell  College  (Iowa),  1860-1900. 
DePauw  University  (Indiana),  1890-1900. 
Earlham  College  (Indiana),  1891-94. 
University  of  Illinois,  1867-90. 
University  of  Indiana,  1890-1900. 
University  of  Wooster  (Ohio),  1870-75,  1880,  1885-87,  1890,  1894. 

IV 

Textbooks  constitute  the  chief  source  of  information  for  discussions  and 
conclusions  in  Part  II  and  in  the  section  of  Part  III  devoted  to  subject-matter. 

1.   MATHEMATICS 

Breslich,  Ernst  R.     First-Year  Mathematics  for  Secondary  Schools,  1915  (1906- 

1909);  Second-Year  Mathematics  for  Secondary  Schools,  1916  (1910);  Third, 

Year  Mathematics  for  Secondary  Schools,  1917. 
Davies,  Charles.     Elementary  Algebra,  Embracing  the  First  Principles  of  the 

Science,  1853. 
Davies,  Charles.    Elements  of  Geometry,  1862,  1875. 
Davies,  Charles.     Elements  of  Geometry  and  Trigonometry  from  the  Works  of 

A.  M.  LeGendre,  1862. 
Evans,  G.  W.,  and  Marsh,  J.  A.    First  Year  Mathematics,  1916. 
Fish,  Daniel  W.    The  Complete  Arithmetic,  1874. 
Greenleaf,  Benjamin.     Introduction  to  the  National  Arithmetic  on  the  Inductive 

System,  1868. 
Loomis,  Elias.    A  Treatise  on  Arithmetic,  Theoretical  and  Practical,  1856. 
Loomis,  Elias.    Elements  of  Algebra,  Designed  for  Beginners,  1856. 
Milne,  William  J.    A  Practical  Arithmetic  on  the  Inductive  Plan,  Including  Oral 

and  Written  Exercises,  1877. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  311 

Ray,  Joseph.  Ray's  Higher  Arithmetic:  The  Principles  of  Arithmetic  Analyzed 
and  Practically  Applied.    1858.    For  advanced  students. 

Robinson,  H.  W.  New  Elementary  Algebra,  Containing  the  Rudiments  of  the 
Science  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  1859. 

Robinson,  H.  W.  The  Practical  High  Arithmetic  for  Schools,  Academies  and  Mer- 
cantile Colleges  Combining  the  Analytic  and  Synthetic  Methods  and  Forming  a 
Complete  Treatise  on  Arithmetical  Science  and  Application  and  Its  Commercial 
and  Business  Application,  1863. 

Schuyler,  A.    A  Complete  Algebra  for  High  Schools  and  Colleges,  1870,  1883. 

Stoddard,  J.  F.  Stoddard's  Complete  Arithmetic  Being  the  New  and  Practical 
A  rithmetic  of  the  Series,  with  Editions  for  a  Full  and  Practical  Course  in  High 
Schools  and  Academies:  Embracing  an  Explanation  and  Applicaiion  of  the 
Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures,  Forms  of  Bills,  Notes,  Accounts, 
etc.,  1868. 

Tappin,  Eli  T.  Treatise  of  Geometry  and  Trigonometry.  Written  for  the  Mathemat- 
ical Course  of  Joseph  Ray,  1868. 

Wells,  Webster.    Essentials  of  Algebra,  1897. 

Wells,  Webster.    Essentials  of  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry,  1898. 

Wentworth,  G.  A.    New  School  Algebra,  1898. 

Wentworth,  G.  A.    Plane  and  Solid  Geometry,  1899. 

Wentworth,  G.  A.,  Smith,  D.  E.,  and  Brown,  J.  C.  Junior  High  School  Mathe- 
matics.    Books  I,  II,  III,  1917,  1918. 

2.  ENGLISH 

Appleton's  Fifth  Reader. 

Bachus,  F.  J.    Shaw's  New  History  of  English  and  American  Literature.    Revised 

and  rewritten,  1875. 
Bain,  Alexander.     English  Composition  and  Rhetoric.    1866. 
Brubaker,  A.  R.,  and  Snyder,  Dorothy.    High  School  English.    Books  I  and  II, 

1910. 
Buhlig,  Rose.    Business  English,  1914. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.,  Baker,  F.  J.,  and  Scott,  F.  N.    The  Teaching  of  English,  in  the 

Elementary  and  the  Secondary  School,  1903. 
Cathcart,  G.   R.     Literary  Reader:  Typical  Selections  from  Some  of  the  Best 

English  and  American  Authors  from  Shakespeare  to  the  Present  Time,  1875. 
Clark,  Stephen  W.    A  Normal  Grammar  Analytic  and  Synthetic,  Illustrated  by 

diagrams,  1870. 
Cleveland,  Charles  D.     A   Compendium  of  American  Literature  Chronologically 

Arranged  with  Biographical  Sketches  of  the  Authors  and  Selections  from  Their 

Works,  1859.    (Stereotyped  edition,  1879.) 
Cleveland,  Charles  D.    A  Compendium  of  English  Literature  Characterized  and 

Arranged  from  Sir  John  Mondeville  to  William  Cowper  Consisting  of  Biographi- 
cal Sketches  of  the  Authors,  Selections  from  Their  Works  with  Notes,  etc.,  1848. 

(Stereotyped  edition,  1874.) 
Frank,  Maude  M.    Elements  of  High  School  English,  1915. 
Greene,  Samuel  S.    A  Grammar  of  the  English  Language  Adapted  to  the  Use  of 

Schools  and  Academies,  IS60. 
Halleck,  Rueben  Post.    A  History  of  English  Literature,  1913. 


312  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Halleck,  Reuben  Post.    New  English  Literature,  1913. 

Hart,  John  S.  A  Manual  of  English  Literature:  A  Textbook  for  Schools  and 
Colleges,  1872. 

Herrick  and  Damon.    Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  1899. 

Hill,  Adam  S.    Principles  of  Rhetoric  and  Their  Application,  1879. 

Hill,  David  J.    Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  1878. 

Kellogg,  Brainerd.  A  Textbook  on  Rhetoric  Supplementing  and  Developing  All  the 
Senses  with  Exhaustive  Practice,  1880,  1892. 

Martin,  Benjamin.  Choice  Specimens  of  American  Literature  and  Literary  Reader, 
1874. 

McGuffey's  Sixth  Elective  Reader,  Revised  Edition,  1879. 

Moody,  W.  v.,  andLovett,  R.  M.    A  History  of  English  Literature.    1913. 

National  Speaker,  1853. 

Newcomer,  Alfonso.    A  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition,  1893. 

Newcomer,  Alfonso.    English  Literature,  1905. 

Pancoast,  H.  S.  and  Shelly,  P.  V.  D.    First  Book  in  English  Literature,  1910. 

Parker's  Exercises  in  Rhetorical  Readings,  1852. 

Proceedings  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools:  Report 
of  the  Commission  on  Units  and  Curricula,  1917. 

Progressive  Speaker  and  School  Reader,  1858. 

Rankin,  T.  E.,  and  Aiken,  W.  A.    English  Literature,  1917. 

Reed,  Alonso,  and  Kellogg,  Brainerd.  Higher  Lessons  in  English — A  Work  of 
English  Grammar  in  which  the  Science  of  the  Language  is  Made  Tributary 
to  the  Art  of  Expression,  1877,  1885,  1896. 

Saunders,  Charles  W.  Saunder's  Rhetorical  and  Union  Sixth  Reader  Embracing 
Full  Exposition  of  the  Principles  of  Rhetorical  Reading  with  Numerous  Speci- 
mens Both  in  Prose  and  Poetry  from  the  Best  Writers,  English  and  American, 
as  Exercises  for  Practice,  and  with  Notes  and  Sketches,  Literary  and  Biographi- 
cal, Forming  a  Brief  Though  Comprehensive  Course  in  English  Literature, 
1862. 

Scott,  F.  N.,  and  Denney,  Joseph.    New  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  1911. 

Spaulding,  William.  The  History  of  English  Literature  with  an  Outline  of  the 
Origin  and  Growth  of  the  English  Language,  Illustrated  by  Extracts.  For 
Use  of  School  and  Private  Students,  1853. 

Standard  Fifth  Reader,  1857. 

Swinton,  William.  A  General  Etymology  and  Syntax  of  the  English  Language, 
1874. 

The  Student's  Reader,  1877. 

Webster,  W.  F.    English  for  Secondary  Schools,  1910. 

Welch,  A.  S.  Analysis  of  the  English  Sentence,  Designed  for  Advanced  Classes  in 
English  Grammar,  1862. 

Whateley,  Richard,  Elements  of  Rhetorical  Composition. 

3.   GENERAL  SCIENCE 

Barber,  F.  D.,  Fuller,  M.  L.,  Prosser,  J.  L.,  and  Adonis,  H.  W.    First  Book  in 

General  Science,  1916. 
Caldwell,  O.  W.,  and  Eikenberry,  W.  L.    Elements  of  General  Science,  1914. 
Clark,  Bertha  M.    An  Introduction  to  Science,  1915. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  313 

Elhuff,  Lewis.    General  Science.    First  Course,  1916. 
Hessler,  John  C.    The  First  Year  of  Science,  1914. 
Pease,  Clara  A.    A  First  Year  Course  in  General  Science,  1915. 
Snyder,  William  H.    First  Year  Science,  1914. 

Weckell,  Ada  L.  and  Thalman,  Joseph  L.    A   Year  in  Science:  A  Textbook  for 
First  Year  in  High  Schools,  1916. 

4.   THE  BIOLOGICAL  SCIENCES 
Bergen,  J.  Y.    Elements  of  Botany,  1896. 
Bergen,  J.  Y.  and  Caldwell,  O.  W.    Practical  Botany,  1913. 
Beyer,  E.  R.    A  Laboratory  Manual  in  Elementary  Biology.    An  Inductive  Study 

in  Animal  and  Plant  Morphology  Designed  for  Preparatory  and  High  Schools, 

1894. 
Brown,  Eli.    The  Eclectic  Physiology,  1884. 
Colton,  B.  P.    An  Elementary  Course  in  Practical  Zoology,  1886. 
Cutter,  John  S.    Comprehensive  Physiology,  Anatomy  and  Hygiene,  1885. 
Gray,  Asa.    How  Plants  Grow.    A  Simple  Introduction  to  Structural  Botany  with 

Popular  Flora;  or  an  Arrangement  and  Description  of  Common  Plants  both 

Wild  and  Cultivated,  1858. 
Higner,  R.  W.    Practical  Zoology,  1915. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  and  Hitchcock,  Edward  Jr.,  Elementary  Physiology,  1866. 
Hooker,  Washington.    Natural  History  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Families,  1860. 
Hunter,  G.  W.    Laboratory  Problems  in  Civic  Biology,  1916. 
Hutchinson,  J.  C.     A   Treatise  on  Physiology  and  Hygiene.     For  Educational 

Institutions  and  General  Readers,  1875,  1895. 
Kellogg,  V.  L.,  and  Doane,  R.  W.      Elementary  Textbook  of  Economical  Zoology 

and  Entomology,  1915. 
Martin,  H.  N.     The  Human  Body.     A   Text-Book  of  Anatomy,  Physiology  and 

Hygiene,  Including  a  Special  Account  of  the  Action  upon  the  Body  of  Alcoholic 

and  Other  Stimulants  and  Narcotics,  1884. 
McBride,  T.  H.    Lessons  in  Elementary  Botany  for  Secondary  Schools,  1895. 
Packard,  A.  S.    Zoology,  Sixth  Revised  Edition,  1883. 
Steele,  J.  Dorman.     Hygienic  Physiology  with  Special  Reference  to  the   Use  of 

Alcoholic  Drinks  and  Narcotics,  Being  a  Revised  Edition  of  the  Fourteen  Works 

in  Human  Physiology,  1868.    Abridged  editions,  1872,  1884. 
Steele,  J.  Dorman,  and  Jenks,  J.  W.  P.    A  Popular  Zoology,  1887. 
Ware,  John.    Philosophy  of  Natural  History,  1860. 
Youmons,  Eliza  A.    The  First  Book  of  Botany.    Designed  to  Cultivate  tlie  Observing 

Powers  of  Children,  1870. 

5.    THE  PHYSICAL  SCIENCES 
Allyn,  Lewis  B.    Elements  of  Applied  Chemistry,  1912. 
Appleton's  School  Physics,  1891. 

Block,  Henry,  and  Davis,  H.  B.    Practical  Physics  for  Secondary  Schools,  1913. 
Bowman,  John.    An  Introduction  to  Practical  Chemistry  Including  Analysis,  1873. 
Carhart,  H.  C.  and  Chute,  H.  N.    Physics  for  High  School  Students,  1901. 
Carhart,  H.  C.  and  Chute,  H.  N.    Principles  of  Physics,  1912. 
Comstock,  J.  L.    A  System  of  Natural  Philosophy,  1840. 


314  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Comstock,  J.  L.  Elements  of  Chemistry:  Designed  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and 
Academies,  1861. 

Cook,  C.  G.    Practical  Chemistry  for  High  School  Students,  1913. 

Cooley,  LeRoy  C.  A  Text-Book  of  Chemistry.  A  Modern  and  Systematic  Explana- 
tion of  the  Elementary  Principles  of  the  Science.  Adopted  to  Use  in  High 
Schools  and  Academies,  1869. 

Cooley,  LeRoy  C.    Natural  Philosophy  for  Common  and  High  Schools,  1872. 

Gage,  A.  P.    Introduction  to  Physical  Science,  1887. 

Greene,  William  H.    Lessons  in  Chemistry,  1884. 

Hooker's  Chemistry,  1863. 

Irwin,  F.  C,  Rivett,  B.  J.  and  Tatlock,  O.  Elementary  and  Applied  Chemistry, 
1915. 

Lynde,  C.  J.    Physics  for  the  Household,  1914. 

Mann,  C.  R.  and  Twiss,  G.  R.    Physics.    Revised  Edition,  1910. 

McPherson,  William,  and  Henderson,  W.  E.    First  Course  in  Chemistry,  1915. 

Plympton,  G.  W.    Parker's  Philosophy.    Revised,  1871. 

Reed,  J.  O.  and  Henderson,  W.  B.    High  School  Physics,  1913. 

Remsen,  Ira.    Elements  of  Chemistry.    A  Text-Book  for  Beginners,  1887. 

Rolfe  and  Gillette.    A  Text-Book  of  Natural  Philosophy,  1868. 

Snell,  J.  F.    Elements  of  Household  Chemistry,  1914. 

Steele,  J.  Dorman.    A  Fourteen  Weeks  Course  in  Chemistry,  1867. 

Steele,  J.  Dorman.    Fourteen  Weeks  in  Natural  Philosophy,  1878. 

Steele,  J.  Dorman.    Popular  Physics. 

6.   THE  EARTH  SCIENCES 

Appleton's  Physical  Geography.    Prepared  on  a  New  and  Original  Plan,  1887. 
Brocklesby,  John.    Elements  of  Physical  Geography  with  a  Treatise  on  the  Physical 

Phenomena  of  the  United  States.    Mitchell's  Series,  1867. 
Dana,  J.  D.    A  Text-Book  of  Geology  Designed  for  Schools  and  Academies.    Revised 

Edition,  1874. 
Dana,  J.  D.    Revised  Text-Book  of  Geology,  Fourth  Edition.    Revised  and  Enlarged. 

Edited  by  William  N.  Rice,  1897. 
Davis,  W.  M.  and  Snyder  W.  H.    Physical  Geography,  1898. 
Geike,  Archibald.    Class-Book  of  Geology,  1890. 
Guyat,  Arnold.    Physical  Geography,  1873. 
Hinman,  Russell,  Eclectic  Physical  Geography,  1888. 
Hitchcock,  Edward,  and  Hitchcock,  Edward  H.    Elementary  Geology.  New  edition. 

1860. 
Houston,  Edwin  J.     Elements  of  Physical  Geography  for  the   Use  of  of  Schools, 

Academies  and  Colleges,  1875. 
Nicholson,  H.  A.    Text-Book  of  Geology  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  1871. 
Norton,  William  H.    Elements  of  Geology,  1905. 

THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

Alden,  Joseph.  The  Science  of  Government  in  Connection  with  American  Institu- 
tions, 1866. 

Allen,  W.  F.,  and  Myers,  P.  V.  N.  Ancient  History  for  Colleges  and  High  Schools, 
1888. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  315 

Anderson,  John  J.  New  Manual  of  General  History  with  Particular  Attention  to 
Ancient  and  Modern  Civilization  with  Numerous  Maps  and  Engravings.  For 
the  Use  of  Colleges,  High  Schools,  Academies,  etc.,  1882. 

Andrews,  Israel  W.  Manual  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  Designed  for 
the  Instruction  of  the  American  Youth  in  the  Duties,  Rights  and  Obligations 
of  Citizenship,  1864. 

Ashley,  Roscoe  L.  Ancient  Civilization,  1915.  Medieval  Civilization,  1915. 
Modern  European  Civilization,  1918.  American  Government  for  Use  in 
Secondary  Schools,  1910.    The  New  Civics,  1918. 

Barnes'  One  Term  History.    A  Brief  History  of  the  United  States,  1871,  1880,  1881, 

Beard,  Charles  A.,  and  Beard,  Mary  R.    American  Citizenship,  1914. 

Bullock,  Charles  J.    Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Economics,  1897.  , 

Burch,  Henry  R.,  and  Patterson,  S.  H.  American  Social  Problems:  An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Society,  1918. 

Champlin,  J.  T.  Lessons  on  Political  Economy  Designed  as  a  Basis  for  Instruction 
in  that  Science  in  Schools  and  Colleges,  1868. 

Chorning,  Edward.  A  Student's  History  of  the  United  States.  Third  revised  edi- 
tion, 1913. 

Clark,  S.  S.    The  Government.    What  It  Is.    What  It  Does,  1902. 

Dale,  Charles  F.    The  American  Citizen,  1891. 

Eggleston,  Edward.  A  History  of  the  United  States  and  Its  People  for  the  Use  of 
Schools,  1884. 

Ely,  Richard  T.    Outlines  of  Economics,  1893. 

Fish,  George  P.  A  Brief  History  of  the  Nations  and  Their  Progress  and  Civiliza- 
tion, 1896. 

Goodrich,  S.  C.    Ancient  History  from  the  Creation  to  the  Fall  of  Rome,  1848. 

Guitteau,  William  B.    Preparation  for  Citizenship,  1914. 

Herrick,  C.  A.    History  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  1917. 

Jones,  J.  A.  and  Sanford,  A.  H,  American  History,  1909.  Government  in  State 
and  Nation,  1910. 

Knowlton,  D.  C.  and  Howe,  S.  B.    Essentials  in  Modern  European  History,  1917. 

Martin,  G.  H.    A  Text-Book  on  the  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States,  1875. 

McCleary,  J.  T.    Studies  in  Civics,  1888. 

McLaughlin,  A.  C.  History  of  the  American  Nation,  1913.  Readings  in  the  History 
of  the  American  Nation,  1914. 

Montgomery,  D.  H.    The  Student's  American  History,  1897. 

Montgomery,  D.  H.    The  Student's  American  History.    Revised  edition,  1913. 

Morey,  W.  C.  Ancient  Peoples:  A  Revision  of  Morey's  ''Outlines  of  Ancient 
History,"  1915. 

Mussey,  D.  M.    American  History,  1911. 

Myers,  P.  V.  N.  Outlines  of  Medieval  and  Modern  History  for  High  Schools, 
Seminaries,  and  Colleges,  1885.  A  General  History  for  High  Schools  and 
Colleges,  1889.    Ancient  History.    Second  revised  edition,  1916. 

Quackenbos,  J.  D.  Illustrated  School  History  of  the  World  from  the  Earliest  Ages 
to  the  Present  Time  Accompanied  with  Numerous  Maps  and  Engravings,  1879. 

Ridpath,  J.  C.  History  of  the  United  States  Prepared  on  a  New  and  Comprehensive 
Plan  Embracing  the  Features  of  Lyman's  Historical  Chart. 


316  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

Scott,  Edward  B.  A  School  History  of  the  United  States  from  the  Discovery  of 
America  to  the  Year  1870,  1870. 

Scudder,  Horace  E.  A  History  of  the  United  States  of  America  with  an  Introduc- 
tion Narrating  the  Discovery  and  Settlement  of  North  America,  1897. 

Sheldon,  Mary  D.    Studies  in  General  History.    Student's  Edition.    1885. 

Smith,  J.  R.    Commerce  and  Industry,  1916. 

Steele,  J.  Dorman,  and  Steele,  Esther  B.  A  Brief  History  of  Ancient,  Medieval  and 
Modern  Peoples  with  Some  Account  of  Their  Movements,  Institutions,  Arts, 
Manners  and  Customs,  1883. 

Swinton,  William.  Outlines  of  the  World's  History,  Ancient,  Medieval  and  Modern 
with  Special  Reference  to  the  History  of  Civilizaiion  and  the  Progress  of  Man- 
kind, 1874. 

Thalheimer,  B.  M.  E.    The  Eclectic  History  of  the  United  States,  1881. 

Thompson,  J.  M.    History  of  the  United  States:  Political,  Industrial,  Social,  1915. 

Thurston,  Henry  W.  Economic  and  Industrial  History  for  Secondary  Schools, 
1899. 

Towne,  Ezra  T.  Social  Problems:  A  Study  of  Present  Day  Social  Conditions, 
1916. 

Townsend,  Calvin.  Analysis  of  Civil  Government,  Including  a  Topical  and  Tabu- 
lar Arrangement  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Designed  as  a  Class- 
Book  for  the  Use  of  Grammar,  High  and  Normal  Schools,  and  Other  Institu  ions 
of  Learning,  1869. 

Walker,  F.  A.    Political  Economy,  1884. 

Wayland,  Francis.  The  Elements  of  Political  Economy,  1841.  The  Elements  of 
Political  Economy,  Recast  by  A.  L.  Chapin,  1878. 

Webster,  W.  C.    A  General  History  of  Commerce,  1903. 

Webster,  Hutton.    Ancient  History,  1913. 

West,  William  M.  The  Ancient  World  from  the  Earliest  Time  to  800  A.D.  Re- 
vised edition,  1917. 

Willard,  Emma.  Universal  History  in  Perspective.  Divided  into  Three  Parts — 
Ancient,  Middle  and  Modern,  1865. 

8.   LATIN 

Allen,  W.  Ford,  Allen  J.  H.    Allen's  Latin  Lessons. 

Andrews,  E.  A.  First  Lessons  in  Latin,  or  an  Introduction  to  Andrews  and  Stod- 
dard's Latin  Grammar,  1853. 

Collar,  W.  C.  and  Daniell,  M.  G.    First  Year  Latin,  1901. 

Collar,  W.  C.  and  Daniell,  M.  G.    The  Beginner's  Latin  Book,  1886. 

Jones,  Elisha.  First  Lessons  in  Latin;  Adapted  to  the  Latin  Grammars  of  Allen 
and  Greenough,  Andrews  and  Stoddard,  Bartholomew,  Buillow  and  Morris, 
Gildersleeve  and  Harkness,  and  Prepared  as  an  Introduction  to  Caesar's 
Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War,  1877. 

Pearson,  Henry  C.    Essentials  of  Latin,  1905.    Revised  1911,  1912,  1915. 

Scott,  Harry  F.    First  Latin  Book  for  Junior  High  Schools,  1918. 

Smith,  M.  L.    Latin  Lessons,  1913. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Algebra 

Extension  of  time  devoted  to,  120. 
Authors 

Biographies  of,  133-4. 
Biblical  Antiquities,  74. 
Biology 

Practical  character  of,  149. 
Bookkeeping,  74. 
Boston  English  School,  6. 
Boston  Latin  Grammar  School,  4. 
Boston  School  Committee 

Regulations  of,  2-3. 
Botany 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  240. 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  152-3, 
156. 
Butler's  Analogy,  74. 

Chemistry 

Laboratory  work  in,  166-7. 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  238-9. 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  166. 
Civics 

Early  texts,  181-3. 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  245-7. 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  181,  184. 
Civil  Government  (See  Civics) 
Classical  Antiquities,  74. 
Classical  "Department,"  249. 
Classics 

Lists  of,  137-40. 

Methods  of  teaching,  140. 

Restricted  use  of,  141. 

Selections  in  common  use,  137. 
Commercial  Law,  74. 
Composition 

Relation  of,  to  Grammar,  144. 

Relation  of,  to  Literature,  145. 

Relation  of,  to  Rhetoric,  144. 


Courses  of  Study  (See  Curricula) 
Curricula 

Aims  of,  50. 

Comparison  of,  17-18. 

Confusion  in  aims  of,  51. 

English  and  Classical. 
Distinction  between,  54. 

Hyphenated  titles,  54. 

Junior  High  School,  199-202. 

Lack  of  meaning  of  titles,  51. 

Lack  of  uniformity  in,  45. 

Multiplication  of,  52. 

Number  of,  46-50,  203-6. 

Organization  of,  50-6,  207. 

Parallel,  52. 

Representative  curricula,  2,  3,  4,  6, 
7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  20-45, 
199, 200, 201, 202,  208-216. 

Subjects  included  in,  62-8,  217,  218. 

Titles  of,  46-50,  203-6. 

Significance  of,  207. 

Units  of  time,  61. 

Declamations,  21,  23,  24,  25,  26,  28, 

34,  131. 
Drawing,  26,  41,  42. 

Economics 

Early  texts,  187-8. 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  186-7. 
Elocution,  31. 
English 

College  entrance  requirements  in, 
134-7. 

Important  changes  in,  123-4. 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  231-5. 

Traditional  divisions  of,  233. 

Uses  of  term,  53. 
English  Classical  School,  1. 
English  Course,  Boston  School,  6. 
English  "Department,"  249. 


319 


320 


INDEX 


Essay  writing,  22. 
Ethics,  74. 

Foreign  Languages 

Relative  importance  of,  79. 

General  Science 

Textbooks  in,  236-8. 
Geology 

Decline  in  importance  of,  168. 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  169. 
Geometry 

Extension  of  time  devoted  to,  121. 
Grammar 

Use  of  diagrams,  125. 

High  School 

Aims  of,  14. 

Boston  High  School,  1. 

Lowell  High  School,  5-8. 

Report  of  Boston  Committee,  1-4. 

School  for  girls,  4. 
History,  Ancient 

Changes  in  character  of  subject  mat- 
ter, 175. 

Early  texts,  175-6. 

Time  devoted  to,  174. 
History,  European 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  242-3. 
History,  United  States 

Character  of  subject  matter,  179-80. 

Early  texts,  179-80. 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  244. 

Time  devoted  to,  179. 

Industrial  Education 
Opposition  to,  55. 
Influence  of  early  schools,  16-17. 
Intellectual  Philosophy,  22. 

Junior  College,  198. 
Junior  High  School,  197-8. 

Curricula  organization  in,  202-4. 

Lack  of  standardization  of,  197-8. 

Literary  exercises,  27,  143. 


Literature 

Increasing  importance  of,  77. 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  130,  132, 
134. 
Logic,  22. 

Manual  Training,  194-6. 
Mathematics 

Changes  in  subject  matter,  229. 

New  movement  in  teaching,  230, 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  229-30. 
Mental  Philosophy,  74. 
Miscellaneous  subjects 

Relative  importance  of,  79. 
Moral  Philosophy,  74. 
Moral  Science,  21. 
Music,  22,  26,  34. 

Natural  Philosophy  (See  Physics) 

Natural  Theology,  74. 

New  Haven,  Conn.  High  School,  8. 

Optional  subjects,  34,  51. 

Pedagogy,  74. 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  High  School,  10. 

Physical  Education,   23,   199,   200-1, 

213-6. 
Physical  Geography 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  170. 
Physics 

Laboratory  work  in,  164-6. 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  238-9. 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  160. 
Physiology 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  158. 
Political  Economy  (See  Economics) 
Psychology,  74. 

Reading,  23,  25,  26,  130-3. 
Reading  texts,  130-3. 
Rhetoric 

Points  of  view  in  teaching,  126-7. 
Rhetoricals,  29. 


INDEX 


321 


Schools 

Changes  in  curricula  of  individual, 

112-6. 
Individual  differences  in,  111,  112. 
Influence  of  locality  of,  110,  111. 
Influence  of  size  of,  109,  110. 

Science 

Aims  in  teaching 

Disciplinary  aim,  148. 
Knowledge  aim,  148. 
Religious  aim,  148. 
New  types  of  textbooks  in,  236-42. 

Science  subjects 

Relative  importance  of,  77. 

Secondary  education 

Extension  in  scope  of,  197. 

Semester  plan,  61. 

Sequence  of  subjects 

Commercial  subjects,  60. 

English,  56. 

Foreign  Language,  60, 

Mathematics,  56. 

Science,  57-9. 

Social  studies,  59-60. 

Social  Studies 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  242-7. 

Relative  importance  of,  78. 
Spelling,  23,  27. 

Spread  of  high  school  movement,  16. 
Springfield,  Mass.  High  School,  7. 
Subjects 

Commercial  Arithmetic,  193. 

Composition 

Increase  in  importance  of,  76. 

Constants  and  variables,  71-8,  220- 
3. 

Elective,  106-8,  223-6. 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  time,  109. 

Mathematics 

Uniformity  in,  45. 

Order  of  in  curricula,  56-60. 

Range  of,  68-70. 

Required,  106-8,  223-6. 

Rhetoric 
Decline  in  importance  of,  77. 


Variations  in  time  devoted  to,  80- 
108. 

Subject  matter 

Commercial  subjects,  193. 
English,  123-46,  231-5. 

Composition,  142-8,  233-5. 

Grammar,  124-6. 

Literature,  129-43,  232-5. 

Rhetoric,  126-9. 

Unified,  231. 
Fine  and  Practical  Arts,  74,  221. 
Foreign  language 

German,  192. 

Greek,  190. 

Latin,  191-2,  247. 
History  of  Commerce,  242. 
Industrial  Subjects,  194-6. 
Mathematics,  118-22,  228-31. 

Algebra,  120,  121,  229. 

Arithmetic,  118-20,  228,  229. 

Geometry,  121,  231. 

Unified,  229,  230. 

Science,  147-73. 
Botany,  152-7. 
Chemistry,  166-8,  239. 
Geology,  168-9,  241. 
Natural  History,  148-50. 
Physical  Geography,  170-3,  241. 
Physics,  161-6,  239-40. 
Physiology,  157-60,  241. 
Zoology,  150-2,  241. 

Social  Studies 

Civics,  181-6,  245-6. 
Economics,  186-9. 
History,  174r-81,  242-5. 

Terminology 

Lack  of  uniformity  in,  250-1. 

Term  plan,  61. 

Theme  writing,  29. 

Writing,  24. 

Zoology 

New  types  of  textbooks  in,  241. 
Points  of  view  in  teaching,  150-2. 


322  INDEX 


TABLES 

I,   XXVIII— Curricula   titles,   46-50,  203-6. 

II-IX,  XXIX,  XXX— Subjects  included  in  curricula,  62-8,  217-8. 

X,  XXXI— Constants  and  variables,  71-4,  220-1. 

XI-XVIII — Variations  in  time  devoted  to  fields  and  subjects,  80-90. 

XIX — Time  devoted  to  fields,  maximum,  mode,  minimum,  average,  90-91. 

XX-XXVII — Time  devoted  to  subjects,  maximum,  mode,  minimum, 
average,  92-99. 

A-J — Names  of  towns  and  cities,  lengths  of  courses,  dates  of  courses, 
length  of  time  devoted  to  fields  and  subjects,  Appendix. 


i 


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